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STATE MANUAL 

OF THE 

Course of Study in Agriculture 

FOR THE 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF OREGON 

Issued by the 
State Department of Education 



J. A. CHURCHILL 

Superintendent of Public Instruction 

1914 



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Salem, Oregon : 

State Printing Department 

1914 






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FEB ^i 1015 



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DEPARTMENT OE^ EDUCATION 
STATE OF OREGON 

J. A. CHURCHILL 

Superintendent of Public Instruction 

E. F. CARLETON 

Assistant State Superintendent 

FRANK K. WELLES 
Assistant State Superintendent 

N. C. MARIS 

L. P. HARRINGTON 

Field Workers Industrial Fairs 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/statemanualofcou04oreg 



A Course in the Elements of Agriculture 

for the Rural and Graded 

Schools of Oregon 

The work outlined in this circular is intended to satisfy 
the demands of teachers and school patrons for a year's course 
in the elements of agriculture which will be broad enough to 
include the varied agricultural activities of our great com- 
monwealth and elastic enough to enable its subject matter to 
be interpreted in terms of local community experience. 

It would be undesirable to formulate a course in agricul- 
ture that must be followed rigidly by every school in every 
county and it would be very difficult to devise a course that 
would meet the needs of every school district. There is need, 
however, of at least an outline, so that there may be some 
uniformity in both the contents of the course and in the 
methods employed throughout the State. 

This course should be considered as preliminary to the 
next one, which will be more complete and which will appear 
later. Superintendents and teachers are urged to offer crit- 
icisms and suggestions so that the revised outline will approx- 
imate the ideal of what such a course should be. 

The subject matter and the methods suggested in this 
course are based upon certain fundamental principles believed 
to be correct agriculturally and sound pedagogically. These 
may be stated as follows : 

1. Agriculture should be taught, as far as possible, in 
terms of the child's own experience. This centers the work 
of the school around the dominant interests and activities of 
the home and the community. 

2. There should be a seasonal rather than a logical 
sequence in the presentation of topics; i. e., the activities of 
the home, farm and community are to be studied as they are 
naturally occurring, not months before or after. 

3. The mechanics of class-room instruction make it desir- 
able, if not necessary, so to arrange the work in agriculture 
that there will be definite exercises or lessons outlined for each 
school day. Opportunity is thus given to arrange the subject 
matter into a series of lesson topics and subtopics so that they 
may be studied in seasonal and sequential order. 



COURSE OF STUDY 



4. When there is in the home or community an agricul- 
tural industry whose activities run more or less throughout the 
year, like dairying, fruit-growing, poultry-keeping, etc., such 
industry should be made the backbone of the course. 

5. All laboratory work should demonstrate some point or 
topic under consideration in class. These exercises should 
exemplify the practical rather than the theoretical points at 
issue, and the results should be interpreted in terms of home 
and farm application rather than in terms of pure science. 

6. Students manifesting a great deal of interest in agricul- 
ture should be encouraged to apply their knowledge at home. 
That phase of agriculture most attractive to them should be 
organized into a definite project to be worked out at home 
under the supervision of the school. The Boys' and Girls' 
Club movement provides the means and methods for such 
study and supervision. 

7. All of the other school subjects may be vitalized and 
greatly strengthened by teaching them in terms of agriculture. 
Agricultural booklet-making provides an effective method for 
such correlation. 

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

a. You are to be the class leader rather than the instructor. 
Place the burden of discussion upon the pupils. Every student 
coming from a farm home, and often from a city home, is 
brimful of facts, ideas and suggestions gained by intimate 
contact with the soil, plants, animals, fields and woods. Seek 
only to find those things of greatest interest to the boys or 
girls; apply the proper suggestion, or ask a thought-stimu- 
lating question and let them tell or do, however crude they 
may be at first in thus expressing themselves. Telling and 
doing rather than reciting is the ideal for classroom work in 
agriculture. 

b. Do not feel ashamed if your pupils know some facts 
about the farm or fields not possessed by yourself. Let them 
glory in telling you and the class what they know. Expres- 
sion rather than impression is the result desired and the best 
informed teacher may easily become the poorest by monop- 
olizing the class discussion. 

c. Do not depend upon the text as the only source of infor- 
mation. Have the pupils consult the Government and Agricul- 
tural College publications, which should form part of the 



IN AGRICULTURE 



school's permanent library; the farm papers, which can be 
obtained from the student's homes, and the agricultural books 
in the school, county and State libraries. 

d. Plan the work far enough in advance that the refer- 
ences given in connection with each topic can be procured. 
Encourage the pupils to consult their parents, practical 
farmers, or others in the community, for information concern- 
ing the topic studied. Whenever possible, go with them on a 
field trip to an orchard, farm, creamery, etc. Such trips will 
vitalize the classroom work and furnish material to use in 
connection with the other school subjects. Written reports, 
discussions and debates instead of recitations and written 
examinations, will lighten the burdens of the teacher and 
increase the interest of the pupils. 

e. If you desire agricultural information or Vv^ish to 
encourage some special agricultural activity in your com- 
munity, consult your County Agriculturalist or write to the 
Extension Service, Oregon Agricultural College. The Exten- 
sion Service is making a special effort to help teachers apply 
their agriculture in terms of their own community needs. 

f. Encourage those pupils who are most interested in 
agriculture to undertake an Industrial Club project. Through 
the practical work of these clubs, the teacher can reach the 
parents and people of the community most effectively. 

HOW TO USE THE OUTLINE 

The course as outlined contemplates an intensive study of 
agriculture in the eighth grade only. It is assumed that 20 to 
30 minutes will be available each day for the necessary reports, 
discussions, exercises and demonstrations. 

Do not follow the outline too rigidly. Whenever you feel 
that the pupils will be more interested in some agricultural 
topic other than the one assigned, permit them to study that 
subject as long as they can do so with profit. More work 
is outlined for each v/eek than the majority of schools can 
cover. The teacher's task will be that of judiciously selecting 
the material and directing the interests of the pupils. 

A distinction has been made between an exercise and a 
demonstration. An exercise is a practical, objective lesson 
performed either indoors or out, requiring the active partici- 
pation of every pupil, while a demonstration is an exercise 



COURSE OF STUDY 



which may be performed by one person or by a group for the 
benefit of the class. A demonstration also differs from an 
exercise in that it usually requires more equipment or a longer 
period of time for its completion. 

At least one exercise or demonstration, illustrating the 
topic under consideration at the time, should be performed 
each week. Suggestions and directions for these exercises are 
given in this circular. 

The subtopics listed as a, b, c, etc., are suggested for daily 
lesson subjects. Assign the lesson subject a day or two in 
advance and have the class, a group of students, or the individ- 
ual pupil, consult the textbook, the College and Government 
bulletins, agricultural reference books, farm papers, and every 
other available source for all possible information pertaining 
to the lesson. Allow them to tell orally what they know or 
have found out, asking just enough questions or making just 
enough comments to keep the discussions going. These class 
discussions may be varied by assigning the pupils different 
subjects for essays or reports, or by having debates on some 
timely topic once or twice a month. 

Encourage the pupils to make Agricultural Booklets. Get- 
ting up such a booklet not only crystallizes the pupil's knowl- 
edge of what he has been studying, but it very effectively 
correlates the writing, drawing, spelling, composition, English 
and, in fact, every other school subject with agriculture in a 
most wholesome manner. 

Have the pupils, as part of their writing lesson, write to the 
Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C., for copies of the Farmers' Bulletins listed 
in the bibliography. The Yearbooks of the Department of 
Agriculture can be obtained by writing your Congressman or 
Senator. The College publications are obtainable by writing to 
the Extension Service, Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis. 

By having the pupils write for these bulletins three or four 
weeks before they are needed, each child asking for not more 
than five at any one time, a splendid school library can be 
obtained free of cost and the pupils will be getting very good 
training in letter-writing at the same time. 

How TO Use the Bibliography. — The pages in the text 
that deal with the subject are indicated after each weekly 
topic. The other numbers given as references are keys to the 



IN AGRICULTURE 



bulletins and publications that have to do with the subject 
under consideration. Thus, "key number" 25 refers to Farm- 
ers' Bulletin 113, "The Apple and How to Grow It." 

Acknowledgments are due Professors G. R. Hyslop H W 
Wilson and E. C. Beckwith, and Messrs. E. P. Walls' R.' M. 
Rutledge and L. P. Gambee for assistance rendered in pre- 
paring the exercises. Free use has also been made of several 
of the very excellent lessons in agriculture outlined in the 
Cornell Rural School Leaflets. 

F. L. Griffin, 
Extension Service, Oregon Agricultural College, 

Corvallis, Oregon, 



10 



COURSE OF STUDY 



THE COURSE BY MONTHS 

SEPTEMBER: Third Week 

Topic: Crops— Wheat; Oats; Corn or Potatoes. (Text, pp. 62-73; 284- 
297.) (Study the crop of greatest importance in locality.) 

Other References: Wheat, 61; 70; 76; 84; 105; 117-B; 127; 129; 136 
155; 158-A; 164; 164-A. Corn, 68; 78; 100; 101; 124; 126; 165 
169; 170; 178; 227. Potatoes, 5; 22; 106-A; 110; 117; 122; 167 
225; 316; 317; 358. 

Suggestions: Encourage the pupils to make a collection of grain in 
the sheaf, ear corn, or potato tubers, as well as to bring specimens 
of mature plants, roots intact, to class. Have a potato or corn show 
on Friday afternoon and invite the parents. Encourage the pupils 
to compete in a judging contest. 

Lesson Topics: (a) The importance of seed selection. Methods used, 
(b) Acre yields, total yields and value of the crop on home farm; 
in county; State; United States; other countries, (c) Methods used 
in harvesting and marketing the crop, (d) Uses of the crop and 
its by-products. 

Only those two exercises which pertain to the crop being studied should 
be required of the pupils. 



Exercise No. 1 : 

Purpose: To learn how to select and judge seed corn. 

Matei'ial: Five or more ears of corn of the same variety. Score cards 
(score cards for judging wheat, oats, corn and potatoes may be 
obtained from the Extension Service, Oregon Agricultural College) . 
Copy the score card on the blackboard for the benefit of the class. 

Procedure : In judging or selecting corn for exhibition purposes, the 
following score card is used. It should be understood, however, 
that the score card is simply a gTiide in the selection of corn for 
seed purposes. 



Adaptability — Maturity, size, solidity, etc 

Seed Condition — Large, bright germ, free from discoloration.... 

Shape of Kernel — Medium deep, slightly wedge-shaped, 

straight sides , 

Uniformity — True to type, uniform size, shape, etc 

Weight of Ear — Large proportion of grain 

Length and Circumference — Medium _ , 

Color of Grain and Coh — TPfee from mixture 

Butts and Tips- Well filled 




Studpnt'i 
Score 



INAGRICULTURE 11 

Adaptabilitv is the most important single item in the selection of corn. In 
other words, is it adapted to the conditions? Adaptability is indicated by its 
maturity, by its size, solidity, color and the appearance of the grain itself. In 
making tests for maturity, the ear is grasped in both hands and twisted. If it 
is solid, and gives a sort of creaking sound when twisted, good maturity is 
indicated. If the kernels may be pushed into the cob easily by the thumb, it 
is an indication of poor maturity. If the color of the ear shows a pale and 
immature appearance and the kernels, especially the germs of the kernels, 
present a swollen appearance, it is indicative of poor adaptability. Kernels that 
present a pinched appearance at the surface or that are chaffy usually indicate 
poor maturity. If the ears twist easily in the hand, immaturity is shown. Ears 
may be too small or too large. A good ear for Oregon conditions will be from 
eight to ten inches in length. Ears having a large cob cannot mature properly. 

Seed Condition of the corn is indicated by a good, bright color of kernel and 
by a large, bright germ that is free from any discoloration. The germ should 
have a live look and be smooth and free from wrinkling or from breaking off 
of the tip cap, when it is removed from the cob. Also, there should be no mould 
between the kernels or next to the cob. 

Shape of Kernel varies with the variety, but should be of good depth and 
should not be pointed at the tip. The width at the top of the kernel should be 
two to three times greater than the thickness. 

Uniformity of the corn determines its trueness to type. All the ears of an 
exhibit should be uniform in size, in shape, in color, in shape of kernel and in 
all characteristics. It will be difficult to get ten ears that are exactly uniform, 
but care should be taken that they are as nearly alike as possible in length, 
circumference, shape, color and such characteristics. 

Weight of the Ear is an important point. Experiments have indicated that 
all other things being equal, the heaviest ear is the best producer. However, 
weight must not be had at the expense of maturity. In Oregon, an ear weighing 
eight to ten ounces when well matured is of satisfactory weight. Ears having 
a small cob and deep grains are best. 

Length and Circumference. Very long, slender ears should be avoided as 
they frequently break off in wind storms in the field. This type of ear dries 
out well, but the extremes of this type should be avoided. Short ears having a 
large diameter, and consequently a large cob, do not dry out well under the 
conditions prevailing here in Oregon and should be avoided. The medium types 
are to be preferred. The circumference of the ear at one-third of the distance 
from the butt to the tip should be between three-fourths and four-fifths of the 
length of the ear. A good length for Oregon corn is from eight to ten inches. 

Color of the grain should be uniform throughout, as uniformity of color 
indicates freedom from mixing. The cob of yellow corn should be red ; of white 
corn, white ; of white-capped corn, it may be either red or white, although the 
red is preferred. 

Butts and Tips should be well filled. The rows of corn should be carried out 
uniformly over the butt end of the ear and partially fill the end of the ear. The 
shank or place of attachment should be of medium size, not so small that the 
ear will blow off the stalk in the wind nor so large that it will be difficult to 
break off when husking takes place. At the tip of the ear, the kernels should 
be carried out in straight rows and the cob should be well filled. A small amount 
of bare tip of the cob is not undesirable. 

In selecting the corn for the exhibit, get an ideal ear in mind and select 
all the ears available that approach this type. Later, a closer selection may 
be made, taking care that all the ears are well-matured or are adapted to the 
conditions ;. that the seed condition is good ; that they have a good kernel and, 
especially, that they are uniform in all outward characteristics. In order to 
secure ten ears that are uniform, it may be necessary to sort over several bushels 
of corn. 



12 



COURSE OF STUDY 



Exercise No. 2: 

Purpose: To make a careful study of the mature corn plant. 

Mate7'ial: Three stalks of mature corn with ears and roots intact. 

Procedure: (a) Make a sketch of the corn plant and indicate on the 
drawing the following parts : true roots ; brace roots ; stalk ; nodes ; 
leaves; ear; silks; tassels, (b) Judge the corn plants, using the 
following score card for that purpose. 



student's 
Score 



SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING THE CORN PLANT 



Maturity of Plant for Grain or Forage — Corn for grain, past 
hard dough stage and partly dry ; for forage, advanced 
hard dough stage before frost 

Sise, Character and Position of Ear — For grain, one medium 
sized, well filled, solid ear, of good quality, placed about 
3% to 4l^ feet up the stalk; for forage a larger ear, well 
filled, and reaching an advanced hard dough stage 

Weight of Plant — The heavier the plant, of good quality, 
the better 

Number and Character of Leaves — For forage, numerous (13 
or more), broad, thick and long; for grain corn, 9 or more 
medium sized, thinner than for forage corn, as a rule, but 
varying to fairly large ones 

Height of Plant — 7 to 11 feet (on dry farming land, 5 to 9 
feet). Reduce score for shorter or longer 

Size of Stalks — Medium sized ; neither spindling nor very 
coaise 

Vigor and Health of Plants — Strong, up-standing, bright 
colored, free from striped leaves or disease 

Freedom from Suckei'ing — Suckers limit both grain and forage 
production 



Suggestions: The wind is the worst enemy of corn. Note how the structure 

of the plant is arranged to witlistand the attacks of the wind ; brace roots ; 

cylindrical stalk, with shortest nodes at base; structure of the leaf (strong 
midribs with parallel veins). 

Exercise No. 3 : 

Purpose: To become familiar with the market and seed requirements 
of wheat, oats, or barley. 

Materials : A measured amount, by weight, of the cereal studied, for 
each student. (Two-ounce samples are recommended.) The grain, 
which should be of the variety grown to the greatest extent locally, 
is to be taken from the bin just as it came from the thrasher. 
Postal scales will prove very serviceable. Have the pupils make a 
copy of the score card for their own use. 

Procedure : Place the sample of grain on a sheet of white paper. The 
score card may be written on the board, or copied by each student. 
With the score card as a guide, each pupil is to study the grain 
sample, point by point. 




IN AGRICULTURE 



13 



SCORE CARD FOR THRESHED GRAIN 



Perfect 
Score 



Student's 
Score 



Seed Condition, as indicated by dryness, freedom from smut or 
other disease, freedom from frost injury and freedom from 
swelled or sprouted grain. Good seed grain should be of 
large size and have a bright live appearance 



Color of Grain. The color of grain varies with the variety 
but whatever the color is, it should correspond with the '■ 
natural color of the variety. It should have a fresh, 
bright appearance and be free from bleaching or stain- | 
ing due to exposure. When varieties are compared, the ; 
red and amber wheats are usually preferred to the white. 
The white oats and barley are usually preferred to the 
gray, black or other colored varieties of these cereals 



Uniformity. Uniformity of color, shape, size and appearance 
indicate good type and freedom from mixing. All grain 
should be uniform in physical characteristics whether it 
is to be used for seed or for milling purposes. Pro- 
nounced variations in size, shape, color or appearance 
of grain seriously injures its market quality 



Soundness and Purity. Soundness refers largely to the 
quality of work that has been done in threshing. Cracked 
grain, or in the case of oats, hulled grain is distinctly 
objectionable. The fault lies not so much with the 
grain as with the manner of threshing. All grain should 
be free from weeds, chaff, etc. For every per cent of 
broken grain, weeds, chaff, smut, dirt, etc., that can be 
separated out, cut two points 



Weight per Bushel. The heavier the weight per bushel the 
better the manufacturing quality of the grain and also 
the better the value for seed purposes. "Wheat should 
weigh 60 pounds per bushel, oats 32 pounds per bushel, 
barley 48 pounds per bushel and rye 56 pounds per 
bushel. Cut two points for every pound below standard 



20 



25 



25 



25 



100 



A great deal can be done to improve the uniformity, soundness and purity 
and the weight per bushel by putting the grain through a good fanning mill 
and grain grader. 

Explanation: In selecting grain for seed or market there are certain con- 
ditions which must be fulfilled. First, there is a best variety of grain for every 
location and for every purpose. Second, the market or seed quality of the 
various samples of the variety must be known. The first is determined by 
cultural experiments. The second, by judging the grain itself. 



Exercise No. 4: 

Purpose: To become familiar with the wheat, oat or barley plant. 
Materials: A number of plants pulled up and preserved so that the 

roots as well as the stems, heads and grain are intact. 
Procedure: The following score card is to be used as a guide in 
studying a cereal plant. Write the score card on the blackboard 
and require the pupils to copy it. 

With a plant on each pupil's desk, have them follow the score card 
point by point in studying their specimen. 



14 


COURSE OF STUDY 




SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING CEREAL PLANTS 




Perfect 
Score 


Students 
Score 



Stooling Habit : 

Number of Stalks per plant — Make no cut for plants having 

6 or more stalks 

Uniformity of stalks produced — All stalks of a plant should 
be uniform. Small stalks developing late only reduce 
the yield 

Straw : 

Height — It should be high enough to be cut without loss 

or inconvenience 

Stiffness — It must be stiff enough to sujjport the head and 

to avoid lodging 

Leafiness — A large leaf surface improves the forage value 

and shows vigor 

Disease Resistance — Plants should be free from rust and 

other diseases 

Head : 

Position — A rather erect head is preferable. Heads may 
be erect, leaning, nodding 

Beardless or Bearded — Beardless is preferable ; a few short 
beards are not seriously objectionable 

Shape — A medium compact head carrying its size out to 
the tip is desirable 

Number of spikelets or Dieshes — The divisions on each 
side of the head of wheat or barley or at the ends of 
the branches of oats are called spikelets or meshes. 
There should be as many as possible ...- 

Number of (/rains per spikelet — A large number is desirable, 
three or more for wheat, two or more for oats. There 
is one for barley and two for rye.... 

Freedom from. Shattering — The heads should hold the grain 
well but should not thresh excessively hard 

Grain : 

Natiiral Color — Red or amber wheat is preferred to white 
wheat, white oats or barley are preferred to the 
colored varieties 

Plumpness — Grain should be plump and free from shriv- 
eling 

Weight per Bushel — Grain should be heavy. Minimum 
weights should be: Wheat, 60 pounds; oats 32 pounds; 
barley, 48 pounds; rye, 56 pounds 

Quality — Grain should be free from smut, frost injury, 
bleaching due to exposure, staining from being wet, 
mold, sprouting, etc 



10 



10 

10 
6 

2 
10 

10 

10 



100 



Explanation. The cereals are the most valuable field crops produced in 
Oregon, although our average yield per acre is low. The yields can be increased 
by the proper selection of seed, and seed selection depends upon an intimate 
knowledge of the individual plant. Students coming from homes where grain 
is the money crop should be encouraged to give special attention to this subject. 



IN AGRICULTURE 



15 



Exercise No. 5: 

Purpose: To learn how to select and judge seed potatoes. 

Materials: Ten or more potato tubers of the same variety. Copy- 
score card on blackboard for the benefit of the pupils. 

Procedure : In selecting potatoes for exhibition, we must bear in mind 
that the tubers are grown for market purposes and that the best 
potato for exhibition is also the best potato for market. This score 
card is a guide for the selection of potatoes for market purposes. 

SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING POTATOE.S 



Trueness to Type — Variety characteristics 

Uniformity of Exhibit — In size, shape, color, surface, etc 

Shape of Tuher — Symmetrical and free from depressions or 
protuberances 

Size — Medium sized, 5 to 8 ounces (cut 6 points if too large, 
9 points if too small) 

Skin — Firm, smooth, and free from sunburn, discoloration, 
scab, and other blemishes 

Flesh — Solid, small centers, free from worm holes, rot, etc. 
Even in texture, of a clear color and free from sogginess 
or discoloration, of any kind 

Eyes — Few in number, strong, but not broad or deep, accord- 
ing to variety 




Student's 
Score 



Triteness to Type. This item simply covers variety characteristics. The 
potato must be true to the type of the variety whose name it bears. 

Uniformity of Exhibit. No potato is valuable for market purposes or for 
seed purposes unless it carries considerable uniformity. If there is lack of 
uniformity, it shows that the type of potato is not a very constant one ; that 
there is evidence of mixing. The potatoes must be uniform in size, shape, color, 
appearance of the surface, texture, etc. In selecting potatoes for exhibit, this 
is one of the most important points. 

Shape of the Tuber. The shape of the tuber is in part determined by the 
variety of the potato, but aside from this, the tuber must be symmetrical and 
of pleasing shape and of a shape that will peel satisfactorily. There must be 
no depressions or protuberances and the potato itself must be symmetrical, 
not crooked or deeply pitted. Such potatoes that have deep depressions, pits, 
protuberances, or that are badly crooked do not look well and do not peel 
economically. 

Sise. The market demands a medium sized potato that weighs in the neighbor- 
hood of five to eight ounces. In most of Western Oregon a five to seven-ounce 
potato is satisfactory. Large potatoes are less objectionable than small ones, 
but the ideal sized potato is one that suits the hotel trade, which is one that 
when baked will make a satisfactory meal for one man. 

Skin. The skin is the portion of the potato that is observed by the buyer, 
and its color also serves to protect the food that is stored beneath. It should 
be firm and not readily broken, but, on the other hand, it should not be wilted 
and leathery. The skin should be smooth and free from any sunburn, discoloT'- 
ation, scab or other blemish because such things indicate poor quality and a 
high percentage of peeling. 

Flesh of the potato should be solid, of even texture and of a good clear color. 
There should be no indication of sogginess or a discoloration of any kind. The 
texture of the flesh should be uniform throughout without any worm holes or 
mechanical injury. 



16 



COURSE OF STUDY 



Eyes. The number and character of the eyes depend a good deal on the 
variety. But the ideal from the standpoint of the market is a type which has 
relatively few eyes and these not very broad or deep. A potato which has 
numerous, deep eyes will not peel satisfactorily so that with any variety the 
ideal is approached when we choose a type that has the medium number of 
eyes and those not broad or deep. 

In selecting potatoes for exhibit purposes, under no condition select the 
larger sizes and whatever size is decided upon as best should be used throughout 
the entire exhibit. Do not put in any large ones in an exhibit of medium-sized 
potatoes because such potatoes are likely to injure the entire exhibit. Avoid 
bruised, cut, or diseased potatoes and all tubers that are misshapen in any way. 



Exercise No 
Purpose : 
Material : 
school. 



To make a careful study of the potato plant. 
Have the pupils bring at least five hills of potatoes to 
The tops and roots should be intact and by careful digging 
many of the tubers will remain attached as well. Copy the score 
card on the blackboard. 
Procedure : 1. Make a sketch of the entire potato plant, showing the 
roots, tubers, stems, leaves, flowers and fruit (the potato balls, if 
any can be found) . 2. Judge the hills of potatoes, using the follow- 
ing score card as a guide : 

SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING POTATO HILLS 



Perfect 
Score 



Student 
Score 



Weight of Hill — Heavy hill with large nmnber of uniform 
medium sized potatoes 

Uniformity of Tubers — Uniform in size, shape, color, etc 

Size of Tubers — Medium sized, 5 to 8 ounces 

Shape of Tubers — Symmetrical, free from depressions or pro- 
tuberances 

Skin — Firm, smootli, and free from sunburn, discoloration, 
scab and other bleniishes 

Flesh — Solid, free from worm holes, sogginess, discoloration 
or mechanical injury _ 

Eyes — Few in number, strong but not broad or deep, according 
to variety 



20 
10 
15 

15 

15 

20 

5 



100 



SEPTEMBER: Fourth Week 

Topic: Horticulture — Apples; Pears; Prunes; Etc. 

References: Pome Fruits, 25; 95; 97; 146; 189; 230; 307; 324; 364. 

Stone Fruits, 42; 60; 97; 130; 189; 369; 370. 
Suggestions: Encourage the pupils to bring to school specimens of as 

many varieties of apples as can be obtained in the community. 

Hold an apple show on Friday afternoon. Invite the parents and 

have a special program. An apple-judging contest might be held 

among the pupils. 

Lesson Topics: (a) Methods used in harvesting and preparing the crop 
for market, (b) Methods used in marketing the crop. By-products 
and their disposal, (c) Fruit districts of the county; of the State. 
Varieties grown. Importance of the crop. Yield. Profits. 



IN AGRI CULTURE 



17 



Exercise No. 7: 

Purpose: To understand the structure of pome and stone fruits. 

Material: An apple or pear and a prune or peach for each student. 

Procedure: (a) Have one pupil cut an apple or pear lengthwise of 
the fruit, perpendicular to the main axis, (b) Have another pupil 
cut a fruit in two at right angles to the main axis. By exchanging 
halves, each pupil will have two different sections of the fruit to 
study, (c) Make a drawing of the cross and longitudinal sections 
of the apple and show the following: skin; flesh; carpels; cells of 
the core; the seeds; the cavity; basin; the calyx lobes; calyx tube; 
tell how the seeds are attached; describe the color of the flesh and 
flavor, (d) Cut a prune or peach in two lengthwise. Make a 
sketch and indicate the following parts: stem; cavity; apex; 
suture; stone, seed; embryo; observe the dots and bloom on the 
skin, (e) Compare the structure of the prune or peach pits with 
the seeds of the apple or pear. In what way do they resemble? 
How do they differ? Examine both types of seeds carefully and 
note the size, position and shape of the embryo. 

Exercise No. 8: 

Purpose : To give pupils an idea of the relative merits of the different 
varieties of fruit. 

Materials: Students should bring to school five specimens of the best 
fruits that can be obtained. Place on paper plates, being careful 
not to mix the varieties on a plate. 

Procedure : Place each variety exhibit together. Have the students 
pick out what they consider to be the best plate of each variety. 
Use the following score card as a guide: 



SCORE CARD FOR .JUDGING FRUITS 



Color 

Uniformity of size, color, etc 

Size 

Shape 

Freedom from insect or disease blemishes 

Total 




Student's 
Score 



Suggestions: If enough varieties can be obtained to make an attractive 
exhibit, hold a fruit show on Friday afternoon and invite the public. Encourage 
competitive judging among the pupils. 



18 COURSEOFSTUDY 

OCTOBER : First Week 

Topic: Insect Pests — Orchard, field, garden crops. (Text, pp. 118-140.) 

Other References: 20: 22; 23; 28; 31; 73; 76; 147; 155; 167; 186; 
204; 210; 226; 242; 321; 323; 328; 332; 341; 344; 347; 351. 

Suggestions : Encourage students to make a collection of insects com- 
mon to the locality, outside of school hours. Full directions for doing 
this work will be found in references 186 and 250. A collection of 
fruit, leaves and branches, showing the results of insect work, 
should be made a part of the permanent exhibit of the school. 

Lesson Tojjics: (a) Annual loss caused by the various insect pests 
in the State; in the United States. The important insect pests of 
the locality; of the State; their habits, (b) The life histories of 
some noxious insects. The importance of knowing the life history 
of an insect, (c) Methods of prevention and control; cultural 
methods; natural enemies; sprays; etc. 

Exercise No. 9: 

Purpose: To be able to recognize some of the more common insects 
and to become familiar with their habits. 

Materials: Students should be encouraged to collect as many insects 
as possible. Directions for killing and mounting insects will be 
found in references Nos. 186 and 250. Any insect which cannot 
be identified locally should be sent to the Department of Entomology, 
Oregon Agricultural College. 

Procedure : (a) Divide the insects collected into three groups, accord- 
ing to whether they are yioxious, beneficial or neutral, (b) Make a 
list of the insects collected and indicate whether they are biting or 
sucking insects, (c) Make another list of the insects collected and 
note whether they have a complete or incomplete metamorphosis. 

Explanation: (a) Noxious insects are those which are detrimental to 
the welfare of man. Beneficial insects are those which produce 
some economic product, or which destroy other insects. Neutral 
insects are those which are apparently neither noxious nor beneficial, 
(b) All insects develop in such a way that their mouth parts are 
adapted for biting or sucking. Biting insects live by feeding on 
animal or plant tissues. Sucking insects live on the juices of animals 
or plants, (c) Metamorphosis means change in form. Nearly all 
insects have what is called a complete or incomplete metamorphosis. 
Those which pass through the four stages of egg, larva, pupa and 
adult are said to have a complete inetamorphosis. The others have 
the egg, nymph and adult stages, but do not pass through the pupal 
or resting stage. 



IN AGRICULTURE 19 

Exercise No. 10: 

Purpose: To give pupils some knowledge of the structure of an insect. 

Material: Grasshoppers, to be collected by the pupils. If none are 
obtainable in the locality, write to the Department of Entomology, 
Oregon Ag-ricultural College. 

Procedure : Make a sketch of the grasshopper and indicate the various 
parts mentioned on page 119 of the text. 

Explanation: An insect's body is divided into three distinct parts: 
the head, thorax, and abdomen. An adult insect has one pair of 
antennae (feeders), three pairs of legs and usually one or two pairs 
of wings. The insect skeleton is on the outside of the body and 
serves as a sort of protective armor. The hard chitinous skeleton is 
usually composed of 13 rings or segments, fastened together by a 
soft, flexible tegument. The head bears the antennae, eyes and 
mouth parts. The thorax is divided into three parts, called the 
prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. Each division bears one 
pair of legs and the last two named bear the wings, when wings 
are present. The abdomen bears no appendages for locomotion. 

OCTOBER: Second Week 
Topic: Plant Diseases of Orchard and Garden. (Text, pp. 94-117.) 

Other References: 22; 73; 76; 147; 164-B; 167; 226; 242; 300; 303; 
331; 342; 343; 349. 

Suggestions : Collect as many different kinds of plant diseases as may 
be obtainable in the neighborhood. Make a permanent exhibit of 
diseased specimens, properly mounted and named. The County Agri- 
culturist, Fruit Inspector, or the Department of Plant Pathology, 
Oregon Agricultural College, will gladly identify all diseased 
specimens. 

Lesson Topics: (a) Losses caused by plant diseases in the State; m 
the United States. Important plant diseases of the section; of the 
State, (b) The nature of a fungus — how it lives and multiplies. 
Difference between parasites and saprophytes, (c) The life history 
of a fungus governs the methods of control. Remedies : Cultural 
methods, sprays, etc. 

Exercise No. 11: 

Purpose: To acquaint the pupils with the vegetative and reproductive 
portions of common fungus. 

Materials : A glass tumbler and saucer; small sheet of blotting paper 
which will fit easily under the inverted tumbler. Small slice of 
fresh bread; also some old stale bread. Two plates. 



20 COURSEOFSTUDY 

Procedure: (a) Moisten a small piece of old bread with lukewarm 
water and place on a piece of moistened blotting paper in one of 
the plates, (b) Expose moistened bread to air for a short time; 
cover with a second plate and set in a warm place, (c) Examine 
bread at end of two days. On it you should find a dense fungus 
growth. If the fungi have not yet developed, the plate should be 
allowed to stand a day or two longer. The fungi may be green, 
brown or black. The black growth are cultures of Rhizopus nigricans 
(Bread mold) and are the type to be studied, (d) Sterilize the 
tumblers, saucers, and small pieces of blotting paper with boiling 
water and pour hot water over the slice of fresh bread. Keep this 
bread away from the air as much as possible by placing it on the 
blotting paper in the saucers and inverting the tumblers over it. 
Any excess moisture which may collect in the bottom of the saucers 
should be poured out. (e) Inoculate the scalded pieces of fresh 
bread with the black bread mold fungus by dipping the point of a 
needle into boiling water and then using it to transfer a small 
speck of the black fungus from the old bread culture to the sterile 
slice of fresh bread under the tumbler. Raise tumbler just high 
enough to touch bread with the needle. Place in warm place and 
examine from day to day. Have pupils watch closely for first 
indication of the growth on the inoculated bread and as soon as it 
is evident a study of it should be commenced, (f ) Notice the growth 
of very slender threads which form the vegetative portion of the 
fungus. These correspond to the roots, stem, and leaves of higher 
plants. One thread is called hypha (pi. hyphae) , the entire mass 
of hyphae being known as the mycelium. Notice the color, size, 
distribution, branching, etc., of the mycelial filaments or threads. 
Observe how the plant spreads by sending out runners, or stolons, 
very much like strawberries, which creep over the bread, fasten 
themselves at intervals, and send up clusters of short branches. 
Remove the bread from under the tumbler and examine to see if 
the mycelium grows on the surface or down into the interior. Study 
the fruiting portion of the fungus (the little round balls in the ends 
of short threads). Note that the fungus which was white or green 
at first has now turned black. The little balls have given the 
fungus the black color, each little ball containing thousands of tiny 
black spores, very much like peas are contained in a pod. The 
fungus "pod" is really the thin covering of the ball which is called 
sporangium (meaning a spore bearer or a spore case). Touch the 
blackened area as lightly as possible with the finger tip and note 
the black dust which clings to it. This dust is really masses of the 
little spores which have been freed from the spore case. Under 
natural conditions these spores are scattered about by the wind or 
by moisture and when they come in contact with suitable material 
for growth they immediately sprout or germinate and give rise to 
new plants. 



IN AGRICULTURE 21 

Exercise No. 12: 

Purpose: To demonstrate the relation of bruising and rough handling 
to the keeping quality of apples. 

Materials: Three or more sound apples; a pin. 

Procedure: (a) Bruise one apple by dropping on the floor, (b) Inocu- 
late a sound apple by puncturing the skin with a pin that has 
touched the decayed part of another apple, (c) Place both apples 
along with a perfectly sound one where they will not be disturbed. 
Note the relative length of time each apple keeps. Also note the 
part of the apple that begins to decay first. 

OCTOBER: Third Week 

Topic: Weeds— (Text, pp. 73-76.) 

Other Refereyices: 102; 115; 116-E; 163-A; 168; 305. 

Suggestions: Make a collection of the most common weeds in the 
locality. Those which are the greatest pests should be properly 
mounted and preserved, roots intact. If the scientific names are 
desired, send specimens to the Department of Botany, Oregon 
Agricultural College. 

Lesson Topics: (a) Effect of weeds upon crops. How they injure cul- 
tivated plants. Why we cultivate, (b) How weeds spread. Dissem- 
ination by roots, seeds, wind, animals, railroads, etc. (c) Methods of 
control : rotation of crops, summer fallowing, spraying, etc. 

Exercise No. 13: 

Purpose: To acquaint the pupil with some of the striking character- 
istics of our common weeds. 

Material: The list of weeds to be studied will vary slightly in differ- 
ent parts of the State. Collect a plant of each of the most important 
weeds, roots intact and in flower or fruit. Separate lists are given 
for the eastern, western, and southern portions, as follows: East- 
ern Oregon — Russian Thistle; Silver Salt Bush; Jim Hill Mustard; 
Lamb's Quarter; French Weed. Southern Oregon — Chickweed; 
Plantain; Wild Carrot; Bull Thistle; Dandelion. Western Oregon 
— Sheep Sorrel; Prickly Lettuce; Bachelor's Button; Dog Fennel; 
Shepherd's Purse. 

Procedure : Place the weeds on a table, and go over each one carefully, 
noting the following points: The character of the roots (whether 
they have a main central root with branches, or a number of 
branches arising from just below the stem) ; character of the stems 
(solitary or numerous; branched or unbranched; fleshy; woody or 
hairy; erect or climbing) ; shape and character of the leaves (all 
in one piece or composed of separate portions or leaflets; how the 
veins run in the leaves) ; character of the flowers (how they are 
arranged). If the weeds bear their flowers in heads, how many 
flowers are there on each head; are all the flowers of the head 
alike? Note the character of the fruit which results from the 
flowers; also the seed which will be found within the fruit. Keep 
these plants for the next exercise. 



22 COURSEOFSTUDY 

Suggestions : Find out the answers to the following questions : Which 
of these weeds is it unlawful to allow to mature seed in Oregon? 
Which are the most common among those studied? In what sorts of 
places are each one of these weeds found growing? What is the 
length of life of each of the weeds studied (one year; two years; 
more than two) ? In the case of those weeds which live two years, 
are any seeds borne the first year? In the case of those which live 
more than two years, are seeds borne each year? What other means 
of propagation do some weeds have in addition to seeds? 

Exercise No. 14: 

Purpose: To determine the number, character and vitality of some 
common weed seeds. 

Material: Some seed saved from plants studied in previous exercise. 
Also the whole fruit of these weeds as well as the seed. 

Procedure : Note the kind of fruits, especially as to whether there are 
any means by which they can easily be carried by wind, water, ani- 
mals, or in other ways. Determine the number of seeds borne in 
each fruit. Estimate the number of seeds borne on each plant. 
Count out one hundred seeds of each of the weeds studied and ger- 
minate them on moist blotting paper between plates. What is the 
percentage of germination? Do the seeds of all these weeds germin- 
ate equally well? If they do not, save some of the seed until next 
spring and then make another germination test. If they do not grow 
in the fall, but do grow in the spring, what would that indicate? 

Suggestions: Noting the average number of a given type of weeds 
growing on a certain area of ground, and estimating the average 
number of seeds produced by each plant, how long would it take one 
plant to cover an acre of ground to a like extent? Do all weed seeds 
grow equally well as soon as mature? Do some weed seeds require 
a resting period before they will grow? How are some weeds spread 
from one place to another? What provision is made for carrying 
the weed's fruit by the wind? How would you distinguish between 
the fi'uit and seed of a weed? 



OCTOBER: Fourth Week 

Topic: Poultry Husbandry — Eggs and Egg Production. (Text, pp. 
204-206.) 

Other References : 29; 93; 137-A; 173; 183; 200; 202; 221; 235; 371; 
387, 392. 

Suggestions: Encourage the pupils to make a collection of eggs repre- 
senting as many different breeds of poultry as possible. Hold an 
egg show in school on Friday afternoon and arrange to have some 
poultryman or merchant demonstrate candling and the proper 
sorting and packing of eggs. 

Lesson Topics: (a) Egg yields; trap-nesting; high laying strains. 
(b) Making and using the trap-nest, (c) Marketing eggs; best 
methods, (d) Use of eggs for food. 



IN AGRICULTURE 23 

Exercise No. 15: 

Purpose: To teach the structure and function of an eg^. 

Materials: Each group of four pupils should be supplied with two 
eggs, one with light shell, the other with dark shell if possible; two 
saucers. There should be a good lens for the genei-al use of the 
class; an alcohol lamp and kettle, or other facilities for boiling eggs; 
an egg-tester. The egg-tester can be made by placing a candle or a 
lamp with chimney in a box, with a hole slightly smaller than the 
Qgg cut through the side. By placing an egg over the opening in a 
darkened room, the interior of the egg can be plainly seen. 

Procedure : Strength of the Egg Shell. — Let each student hold a hard- 
shelled egg between the clasped hands, the ends of the egg in the 
hollow of the hand, and try to break it. Observe the great strength 
of the egg, due to the arch-like arrangement of the particles of the 
shell, similar to the stones or bricks in the arch of a bridge. This 
arrangement gives the egg great resistance against injury to the 
shell, or to the chick which is developing within the egg. 

The Contents of an Uncooked Egg — (a) Break a fresh, uncooked egg in a 
saucer by separating the shell in the middle. 

Observe the "germinal disc," which appears as a light-colored spot usually 
to be found on the upper .surface of the yolk. The germinal disc contains the 
life principle of the egg. On the upper surface it remains in close contact with 
the source of heat during natural incubation, which is from above. 

(b) Note the "chalaza," or the whitish cords of denser albumen on the 
sides of the yolk toward either end of the egg. These cords of denser albumen 
serve to keep the yolk properly suspended within the albumen. Thus the chick 
which develops on the upper surface of the yolk is protected from injury, if, 
through rough handling, it should come in contact with the shell. 

(c) Note the transparent watery appearance of the albumen (white of the 
egg). The albumen supplies the food in liquid form by which the chick grows 
within the shell. 

(d) Examine the shell and note the air-space usually found near the large 
end. Observe the brittleness of the shell and the two tough membranes best 
observed at the air-space, where the membranes separate. The air-space 
furnishes a readily available supply of fresh air to the embryo chick. The 
two membranes prevent the too rapid evaporation of moisture through the pores 
of the shell, but allow oxygen to enter the egg and carbon dioxid to pass out. 

(e) By placing a section of the shell under the lens, indentations or pores in 
the shell may be observed. These thinner parts permit the gases to pass more 
readily through the shell. If the pores of the shell are covered bv oil, varnish, 
dirt, or broken egg, the pores will be closed and the chick smothered. 

(f) Note the pigment of the shell, which gives to each egg its characteristic 
color. Observe in nature how the first eggs laid for a brood are more pro- 
nounced in color, and how the color pigment decreases with each egg that is 
laid, due to exhaustion of the supply. 

The Content of a Boiled Egg — Crack carefully, on the large end. the shell of 
a hard-boiled egg; remove the shell carefully piece by piece to avoid tearing 
the shell membrane. 

(a) Observe the air-space and the two membranes, which are separated with 
difficulty. Note that the outer membrane is the thicker and tougher. 

(b) Cut the egg lengthwise through the middle. Observe the lighter-colored 
flask-shaped center of the yolk and the darker yolk arranged around it in con- 
centric layers. Note the "germinal vesicle" or "germinal disc" at the upper part 
of the light yolk. Observe that the yolk is at one side and not in the center of 
the white of the egg. Note, also that the germinal disc is on the upper side of 



24 COURSEOFSTUDY 

the yolk. This is because tlie yolli is lighter in weight than the albumen and hence 
floats. The germinal disc on tlie surface of the white yolk is lighter than the dark 
yolk. 

The chemical composition of the dry substance of the inside of tlie egg is : 

Protein Pat 

White (albumen, white of the egg) 88.92 .53 

Yolk - 20.62 64.43 

There is a large amount of fat In the yolk and almost no fat in the albumen. 
Fat is lighter than albumen, hence rises to the surface. This may be observed in 
practice by holding a fresh egg in front of an egg-tester and noting the tendency 
of the yolk to float. 

This tendency of the yolk to float to the surface makes it necessary frequently 
to turn eggs which are kept for hatching ; otherwise the yolk will rise until the 
germinal disc comes in contact with the shell membrane, which becomes dry by 
evaporation and allows the vitelline membrane to adhere and thus become rup- 
tured, killing the germ when the egg is moved. 

(c) Make a drawing, longitudinal section (the outline to be 1 lA times natural 
size) showing directly from the egg itself the following: 

(a) The shell and its pores, (b) The two shell membranes turned back from 
the shell, (c) The air space, (d) The three layers of albumen, (e) The vitelline 
membrane surrounding the yolk. (f) The vitellus yolk, showing its concentric 
layers. (g) The germinal disc. (h) The chalaza ("hammock cords"). 

DEFINITIONS 

Vitelline Membrane — A delicate film-like skin, which encloses the liquid portion 
of the yolk of the egg. 

Vitellus — The yellowish-like substance within the yolk of an egg — closed by the 
vitelline membrane. 

Embryo — The young chick in the first stages of development, before it leaves 
the shell. 

Concentric layers — Thin layers of yolk substance of different shades appearing 
to be arranged in rings, one within the other, whichever way the yolk of a hard- 
boiled egg is divided. 

Incubation — The process of development of a chick within the egg, requiring 
heat, moisture and air. 

Chalaza — A twisted band of thickened albuminous substance (white of egg) to 
be found attached to the yolk for the purpose of keeping it properly suspended. 

Shell membrane — Two thin skin-like tissues which line the inside surface of the 
shell of the egg. 

Germinal vesicle, germinal spot, germinal disc — The part of the yolk of an egg 
undergoing incubation, which contains the first traces of the developing chick. 

(This exercise is adapted from the Cornell Rural School Leaflet.) 

NOVEMBER: First Week 

Topic: Poultry Husbandry — Types and Breeds; Housing; Care. (Text, 
pp. 204-206.) 

Other References: 16; 45; 47; 57; 93; 139-A; 162; 163; 173; 187; 
176; 200; 221; 229; 232; 234; 373. 

Suggestions: Encourage the pupils to hold a poultry show at school. 
Each pupil should bring one tc three birds in a suitable coop. 
Arrange to have some poultryman in the neighborhood to judge the 
exhibits. Give blue, red and white ribbons as prizes. 

Lesson Topics: (a) Types and breeds of farm poultry. Origin of the 
different varieties, (b) Housing and yarding of the laying stock, 
(c) Feeding for eggs, (d) Poultry pests and diseases, (e) Turkeys, 
ducks and geese. 



IN AGRICULTURE 25 

Exercise No. 16: 

Purpose : To teach the pupils the parts of a fowl and the purpose of each. 

Material: Two fowls of any breed, both male and female. These may be 
obtained from the pupils and brought to school in suitable coops. 
An outline drawing of the fowl should be placed on the blackboard 
and the various parts of the fowl indicated. 

Procedure : Have one of the older pupils place the fowl on a table on 
which a burlap sack has been spread, so all the class can see. Then 
the teacher or one of the pupils should describe and name each part 
of the fowl and state its use. The pupils should then be required to 
make an outline sketch and insert the names of the different parts, 
using the following definitions as a guide : 

1. Head — Includes face, eye, beak, comb and other parts. 

2. Beak — The upper and lower horn-like parts of the mouth. For biting and 

tearing. 

3. Face — The part of the head below and between the ej'e and the beak. 

4. Comb — The fleshy growths attached to the top of the head. For ornamentation. 

5. Wattles — The fleshy growths attached to the throat and the lower part of the 

beak. For ornamentation. 

6. Ear Lobes — The fleshy enlargements on the face below the ear. For 

ornamentation. 

7. Bye — The organ of sight. Note the method of opening and closing the eyelid. 

8. Ear — The organ of sound. Observe the simple opening without external ear 

parts. 

9. Nose — The opening of the air passages at the base of the beak. 

10. Neck — The portion of the fowl which unites the head with the body and 

allows the head to be turned freely in various directions. 

11. Back — The portion of the body between the neck and the rump. 

12. Tall — The rump and feathers which are found upon it. For steering the body 

during flight. 

13. Body — The under part and sides of the fowl between the breast and including 

the fluff. 

14. Fluff — Soft feathers covering the abdomen. 

15. Abdomen — The portion of the body between the rump and the keel covered 

with fluff feathers. 

16. Keel — The lowest portion of the body between the abdomen and the breastbone. 

Heavy low-hanging portion of body giving balance and steadiness in flight. 

17. Breast — The part of the fowl extending from the lower part of the neck to 

the keel. It is formed by the large muscles (white meat, pectorals) which 
move the wings during flight. Feel for the wish-bone. 

18. Wing — The organ of flight. Stretch it out like a fan and note its large size 

and overlapping feathers. 

19. Leg — The organ of locomotion, including the foot, shank, hock, thigh, and 

"second joint." 
2 0. Thigh — The "first joint" of the leg above the hock. 

21. Shank — The part of the leg between the foot and the hock. Note the large 

scales on the front side to protect the shank from injury. 

22. Feet — The lower portions of the leg, including the toes. Used for scratching 

and perching. Move shank up and down at hock joint and observe the 
toes move. 

23. Toes — The appendages of the feet. 

24. Hock — The joint between the thigh and shanks. 

2 5. Spur — The horny growth on the shank. Used for defense in fighting. 
26. Cushion — The feather section of the female overlapping the base of the tail. 
2 7. Cape — The feather section of the female at the junction of the neck and back. 
2 8. Saddle — The feather section overlapping the base of the tail of the male. 
29. Hackle — The feather section on the lower part of the neck overlapping the 
cape. 
(This exercise is taken from the Cornell Rural School Leaflet, Vol. II, No. 2.) 



26 COURSE OF STUDY 



NOVEMBER: Second Week 

Topic: Dairying— Milk Testing; Milk Records. (Text, pp. 220-224.) 

References: 30; 200; 215; 219. 

Suggestions: If the school does not own a Babcock tester, a small out- 
fit should be borrowed from some dairyman in the community. 
After the first one or two exercises are given in class, the pupils 
should be permitted to acquire proficiency by making tests after 
school, or during school time as a reward for getting their other 
lessons. As soon as a pupil becomes proficient, encourage him to 
test the home herd or some neighbor's cows, taking samples twice a 
month for a period of six to eight months. 

Lesson Topics: (a) Principles of milk testing, (b) The composition 
of milk, (c) Keeping dairy records. Importance. 

Exercise No. 17: 

Purpose: To learn how to test whole milk. (Follow directions given 
in reference No. 219.) 

Exercise No. 18: 

Purpose: To learn how to test cream. (Follow directions given in 
reference No. 219.) 
Exercise No. 19: 

Purpose: Demonstration; to demonstrate some of the constituents of 
milk — fat, casein, sugar and ash. 

Materials: Thermometer, bottle, saucer or pan, a little acid or vine- 
gar, one quart of fresh milk. 

Procedure: The Fat. — Allow a quart of fresh milk to stand in the pan 
in a cool place until the cream gathers. This may be removed by 
skimming. Place the cream in a bottle, filling it not more than 
two-thirds full. Warm to a temperature of about 60 degrees F., 
and then shake the cream. The fat globules will unite and form fat 
granules lai'ge enough to be seen. Most of the fat has been removed 
from the milk by this process. The Casein. — Add a few drops of 
weak acid or vinegar to the skimmed milk and as soon as it coagu- 
lates or thickens, warm to a temperature of 100 degrees F. Break 
the thickened portion into a few pieces with a knife or spoon. The 
skimmed milk has thus been resolved into two parts, the curd and 
the whey. The curds represent the casein or nitrogenous part of 
the milk. The Albumen. — Heat the whey to 160 degrees F., and 
observe that a clean, watery fluid will collect on the surface, which 
may be separated from the rest by skimming. This is the albumen, 
which is similar to the white of an eg^. The Sugar. — A small quan- 
tity of whey which has been freed from its -albumen should be placed 
on a clean shallow dish and carefully warmed, care being taken not 
to burn it. This may be done by placing in an oven with the door 
partly open. When the water has evaporated, a dry substance 
remains. The dry substance is seven-eighths milk sugar and one- 
eighth ash. The Ash. — Place part of the sugar and ash upon a 
metal spoon and hold over a flame. Allow it to burn as long as it 
will. The substance that remains is the milk-ash. Ordinary milk 
contains : 



IN AGRICULTURE 27 

Percent In ] Quart 

Water 87 29.93 ounces 

Fat 4 1.38 ounces 

Casein 2.6 .89 ounces 

Albumen 7 .24 ounces 

Sugar - 5. 1.72 ounces 

Ash 7 .24 ounces 

100% 34.40 ounces 

(Adapted from Cornell Rural School Leaflet, Vol. I, No. 2.) 



NOVEMBER: Third Week 

Topic: Dairying— The Dairy Cow. (Text, pp. 216-219.) 

Other Refereyices: 11; 24; 91; 114; 191; 200; 202: 212; 213; 214; 

222; 231. 
Suggestions: Arrange to have a cow brought to school so the pupils 
can get practical experience in judging. Call upon your County 
Agriculturist or some dairyman in the neighborhood to point out to 
the class the characteristic points of a dairy cow. Encourage the 
pupils to do practice judging at home. 

Lesson Topics: (a) How to use the score card. The conformation 
of the dairy type, (b) The types and breeds of daily cows. Their 
origin and improvement, (c) The records of some high producing 
cows of different breeds. "The Register of Merit." (d) Feeding 
and care of dairy cows. 

Exercise No. 20: 

Purpose: To become familiar with the conformation or judging 

points of a dairy cow. (See reference 231.) 
Procedure : Become acquainted with all of the parts mentioned in the 
score card by an actual study of the animal itself. 



28 



COURSE OF STUDY 



SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY COWS 



Perfect 
Score 



Mature cows should weigh 900 — 12 00 



Animal No. 



Estimated weight 



Head — Rather long ; forehead, wide ; face, fine, clean cut ; 
muzzle, large ; eyes, full and lively ; horns, small and 
oval at base - 

Neck — Moderately long, thin, straight on top, free from 
loose skin on under side, clean at juncture with the 
head, not heavy at shoulders — 

Shoulders — Sloping, not fleshy ; withers, fine and pointed 
at top - - - 

Chest — Sufficiently broad and deep to insure good consti- 
tution ; brisket and whole forequarters light ; body 
wider and deeper backward 

Back — Straight to setting on of tail ; spine, well defined, 
especially at shoulders 

Barrel — Long, deep and wide at flank; ribs, - long and 
wide apart 

Hips — Wide apart; square with hook bones 

Rump — Long, lean, level. Pin bones high and wide 

Tail — Set on level with back, reaching to hocks, tapering 
and pliable toward tip, switch full of long fine hair 

Skin — Loose, oily, moderately thin ; hair, fine ; secretion 
inside of ears yellow and abundant 

Pore Udder — Pull and not fleshy, extending well forward 
on the level of the attachment of teats and joining belly 
by a very slight upward curve - 

Hind Udder — Pull in form and well up behind 

Teats — Rather large, wide apart, squarely placed 

Milk Veins — Prominent, extending forward and entering 
belly through large or numerous openings 

Disposition — Wide awake and alert, but kind and not 
irritable 

General Appearance — Three dairy wedges well defined. 
Throughout free from superflous flesh and fat. Legs 
short, straight, wide set, and clean cut. Thighs, open 
and incurved, giving room for udder 



Total 



10 

3 

2 

10 
3 

10 

2 
2 



13 
11 

5 

5 
5 



10 



Student's 
Score 



100 



Topic: Care of Milk and Its Products: — (Text, pp. 224-227.) 

Other References: 18; 30; 42; 110-A; 114-C; 116-C; 125; 145-E; 
146-C; 166-A; 200; 216; 304; 309; 334; 391; 397. 

Suggestions: The subject of sanitation in milk production is so 
important that it should receive the greatest possible amount of 
attention from pupils. The exercises suggested are simple and 
may be performed in any school. 

Lesson Topics: (a) Dairy barn sanitation; scoring the dairy barn, 
(b) The disposal of barnyard manure; the water supply, etc. 



INAGRICULTURE 29 



Exercise No. 21: 

Purpose: To make a test for cleanliness in milk production. 
Materials: Two 4-ounce bottles. Some fresh milk. 

Procedure: Cleanse and scald the bottles thoroughly. Fill up to the 
neck with fresh milk. Place a small piece of barn yard manure in 
one bottle. Tightly cork both bottles and set in a warm place. 
Open at the end of 24 hours. The milk in the bottle in which the 
manure was placed will probably have a putrid odor and fermen- 
tation will bs occurring. The milk in the other bottle may be sour 
but it will be due to the normal souring of the milk. 

Explanation: Whenever fresh milk ferments in a short time and has 
a putrid odor it is safe to say that it contains some barn yard 
contamination. 

NOVEMBER: Fourth Week 
Exercise No. 22 : 

Purpose : To demonstrate the effect of dirt upon the keeping qualities 
of milk. 

Material: Seven 2 or 4-ounce vials or bottles; some cotton batten- 
fresh milk. ' 

Procedure: Boil the bottles for half an hour. Remove and drain. Fill 
% full of fresh milk and plug or cork with cotton batting. Sterilize 
by standing in boiling water for 40 minutes on three consecutive 
days. Label the bottles A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. Remove the cork 
from bottle A and insert a small piece of manure (taken from the 
side of a cow), and cork again with the cotton plug. In B, put 
the scrapings from around the sides of the milk pail or some other 
dirty milk utensil. To C, add two or three cow hairs. To D, add 
a few drops of water which has been used to wash the hands.' To 
E, add some particles of straw or hay obtained from the cow 
stall. Keep F plugged with cotton throughout the demonstration. 
Uncork bottle G and allow it to stand in the open air. Observe 
each of these bottles daily and make note of any changes that 
can be seen in them. Observe also the odor that comes from the 
contents of each bottle. Discriminate between the sour smell that 
comes from the norm.al souring of milk and the putrid or rotten 
odor that comes from contamination with manure or unclean con- 
ditions. What lessons in dairy sanitation does this exercise teach? 



30 COURSEOFSTUDY 

Exercise No. 23: 

Purpose: To make a test of the purity of water supply. 

Material: Two four-ounce bottles, some cotton batting- and some fresh 
milk. 

Procedure : Scald the bottles and drain. Fill three-fourths full of milk. 
Insert a cotton plug, stand the bottles in boiling water up to their 
necks for 40 minutes on three consecutive days. To one add a few 
drops of fresh spring or well water, to the other add a few drops of 
barnyard liquid. Place both bottles in a warm spot and observe 
what happens to each. Usually the milk will curdle within ten to 
twelve hours when the water is contaminated, the curdling and 
putrid odor being a safe indication that the water is bad. 

DECEMBER: First Week 

Topic: Care of the Milk in the Home — References: Same as for last 
week. 

Suggestions: While there must be cleanliness in the production of 
milk it is just as important that sanitary methods be observed in 
its handling in the home. 

Lesson Topics: (a) The care of milk in the home. (b) Sanitary 
handling of milk by dealers, (c) The principles of butter and 
cheese-making. 

Exercise No. 24 : 

Purpose: To study the effect of temperature upon the keeping qual- 
ities of milk. 

Materials: Four pint milk bottles or fruit jars, scrupulously clean; 
a quart of fresh milk, and a thermometer. 

Procedure : Thoroughly mix the fresh milk and pour equal quantities 
into each of the four pint bottles or fruit jars. Keep them covered 
with a cloth to prevent the entrance of dirt. Place one of the bot- 
tles in a dish of ice water or very cold well water. Wrap second 
with a heavy cloth and keep moistened with cold water and place 
in the shade. Place the third in a dish or pan of water having 
a temperature of about 60 degrees and place the fourth in a 
dish of water having a temperature of about 100 degrees F. Try 
to keep the water surrounding the various bottles at the tempera- 
tures mentioned above. Examine frequently and note the length 
of time it takes the milk to become sour and to curdle. 

Suggestion: The experiment should be started in the early morning 
and the different temperatures mentioned are to be maintained 
during the day, so far as possible. The pupils should understand 
that the souring which goes on in the milk is the result of the 
presence and development of bacteria. 



IN AGRICULTURE 31 

Exercise No 25 : 

Purpose: To demonstrate the molds which live in cheese and give 
it flavor. 

Materials: A glass tumbler, saucer, a small piece of cheese, and a 
small, flat stone. 

Procedure : Place the cheese in the saucer on the small flat stone, 
surround the stone with water and invert the tumbler over the 
cheese and stone and place where it will keep warm. Have the 
pupils make note of any growth that may occur upon the surface 
of the cheese from day to day. The molds that develop in cheese 
and give it its flavor will appear in two or three days. This dem- 
onstration suggests that m.olds and other fungi can be beneficial 
as v/ell as harmful to man. 

Exercise No. 26: 

Purpose: To demonstrate bacterial fermentation. 
Material: A glass tumbler, and some molasses. 

Procedure : To one part of molasses add ten parts of boiled water. 
Fill the tumbler nearly full with this solution. Add a little 
manure water to the contents of the tumbler. Set in a window 
or other wai-m nlace. Within 24 hours, bubbles may be observed 
rising from the liquid in the glass. Fermentation is taking place 
and is caused by the bacteria which were contained in the manure 
water. When manure gets into milk which is used for making 
cheese, this form of fermentation may occur and give rise to 
what is known as gassy cheese. 



DECEMBER: Second Week 

Topic: Animal Husbandry — (Text, pp. 192-203.) 

Other References: Cattle, 1; 48. Sheep and Goats, 8; 22-A; 175; 
177; 186. Swine, 48; 59; 89; 116-D; 184; 224; 236; 244. 

Suggestions: Study that type most important in the community or 
which can be most easily obtained. Have the animal brought to 
school or take the class to some nearby farm. Make arrange- 
ments beforehand with the owner for the use of his stock and have 
him point out to the class the important judging points of the 
animal. 

Lesson Topics: (a) The important points in the conformation of the 
animal. (b) Types and Breeds; their origin. (c) Feeding; 
housing, and care, (d) Marketing the products and by-products. 

Exercise No. 27: 

Purpose: Sheep — To become familiar with the conformation or judg- 
ing points of the anim.al. 

Procedure: Become acquainted with all of the parts mentioned in 
the score card by an actual study of the animal itself. 



32 



COURSE OF STUDY 



SCORE CARD FOR MARKET SHEEP 



Perfect 
Score 



General Appearance — Weight, score according to size 

Form, long, level, deep, broad, low set, stylish 

Quality, clean bone, silky hair, fine skin, light in offal, yield- 
ing large percentage of meat 

Condition, deep even covering of firm flesh especially in 
region of valuable cuts. Points indicating condition of 
ripeness are thick dock, back thickly covered with flesh, 

thick neck, full purse, full low flank, plump breast 

Head and IVecfc— Muzzle fine, mouth large, lips thin, nostrils 
large 

Byes, large, clear, placid 

Face, short, clean-cut features 

Forehead, broad and full 

Ears, fine, erect 

Neck, thick, short, throat free from folds 

ForequcDrters — Shoulder vein, full 

Shoulder, covered with flesh, compact on top, smooth 

Brisket, projecting forward, breast wide 

Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong ; forearm full, 

shank smooth and fine 

Body — Chest, wide, deep, flesh carried down on sides 

Back, broad, straight, even, long, wide, thickly fleshed, ribs 
arched 

Loin, thick, broad, long, even 

Hindquarters — Hips, far apart, level, smoothly fleshed 

Rump, long, level, wide to tail head ; dock plump, oily 

Thighs, full, deep, wide 

Twist, plump, deep, wide 

Legs, straight, short, strong; shank smooth, fine 

Wool — Kind, domestic, territory, carpet or blanket 

Class, clothing, delaine or combing 

Grade, fine^ medium or coarse 

Quantity, long, dense, even 

Quality, fine, pure, crimp close, regular, even 

Condition, bright, sounfl, clean, soft, light 

Total -. 



10 
10 



10 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 



10 
10 
2 
3 
3 
3 
1 



4 
4 
4 

100 



Student'i 
Score 



IN AGRICULTURE 



33 



Exercise No. 28: 



SCORE CARD FOR BEEF CATTLE 



Perfect 

Score 



Student' I 
Score 



General Appearance — Attractive appearing, deep, broad, blocky, 
low set and massive with straight top and bottom lines. 
Carriage, stylisli and vigorous. The bull should be rather 
heavy in the front quarters and very masculine. A cow 
should be light in front and show femininity. Weight 
according to age 

Quality — Skin of moderate thickness, mellow and pliable, and 
not stuck tightly to the body. Thick stiff hide or thin 
papery hide objectionable. Hair thick and fine, mossy 
and rather long. Bone rather fine. Covering of flesh, 
even and not gathered in bunches or patches 

Constitution — Chest deep and broad. Crop and fore flank well 
filled. The nostrils must be large and the appearance 
of the animal must indicate strength and vigor 

Condition — The covering of fat must be thick and even, firm 
but elastic, never soft and mushy. This point applies 
mainly to finished beef and show animals 

Conformation — Head and Neck: 

Muzzle : broad, mouth large, jaw wide, nostrils large 

Eyes: large, clear, placid and prominent 

Face : short and broad, showing a good feeder 

Forehead: broad, neither sunken nor bulging 

Ears; of medium size, fine in texture 

Horns : fine in texture, oval, even in size and shape. If 
polled the poll should be neat and free from scars 

Neck: thick and short, throat clean 

Forequarters — Shoulder vein, full and smooth 

Shoulder : broad but smooth and well covered, blending 
evenly with the ribs, backbone not lower than tops of 
the shoulder olades 

Brisket : broad, rounding, only fairly prominent 

Dewlap: neat, skin not loose and drooping 

Legs : very short, straight and fine 

Body — Ribs : long and well arched, showing great width and 
depth of barrel ; flesh thick and extending well down 
on the sides 

Back: broad, straight and even 

Loin: thick and broad, well covered with flesh 

Flank: full and even with the under line 

Hindquarters — Hips : wide but smoothly covered with flesli. 

Mere width of bone without flesh is no advantage 

Rump : long, level and wide. Tail head smooth 

Pin Bones : far apart but not prominent 

Thighs : fleshed to hocks ; full and wide 

Twist: deep and well filled 

Legs : very short and fine 

Total 



10 



10 
10 
10 

1 

1 

4 
1 
1 



100 



Sif 



34 



COURSE OF STUDY 



Exercise No. 29: Swine: 

score card for market hogs 



General Appearance — ^Veight : 175 to 225 pounds. Est 

(Cut double if over weight). 

Condition : Carrying mucli fat of even distribution 

Quality : Firm in flesh ; smooth skin ; fine straight hair, 

small clean bone 

Dressing Percentage : Maximum development of back, sides, 

and ham with minimum amount of belly and waste 

Form : Long, low set, wide, blocky, with greatest possible 

proportion of the more valuable parts 



Perfect 
Score 



Conformation — Head and Neck: 

Face: short and broad indicating a good feeder. 

Ears : fine 

Poll: broad and smooth 

Neck: short, thick and smooth - 

Jowl: smooth and of medium size 



Forequarters: Shoulders: broad and smooth but not exces- 
sively heavy -.- 

Brisket : broad - 

Legs : short, straight, clean cut tapering bone ; standing up 

well on the toes '■ 

Body: Chest: deep and wide; well filled back of the shoulders 

and in fore flank 

Back and loin : long, slightly arched, even in width, broad, 

showing good spring of ribs 

Sides : long and deep ; well filled, thick and firm into the 
corners; ribs long; not pot bellied 

Hindquarters: Rump: long, thick and wide; slope to corres- 
pond with arch of back 

Hams : thick and broad, extending to hocks : twist well filled 
Hind legs : short, straight, clean cut tapering bone ; stand- 
ing up well on the toes 



Total 



20 
20 
10 
10 
10 

3 
1 
1 
2 
1 

2 
1 

2 

4 
4 
3 

1 
3 



100 



Student 
Score 



DECEMBER: THIRD WEEK 

Topic: Animal Husbandry — Horses. (Text, pp. 182-191.) 

Other References: 200. 

Suggestions: Have one of the pupils bring a horse from home for 
study and judging practice. If this is not possible, arrange to 
have a liveryman or breeder bring an animal to school and explain 
the judging points to the class. 

Lesson Topics: (a) The conformation of a horse; names of the dif- 
ferent parts. (b) Types and breeds; origin, evolution of the 
horse; history of the various breeds, (c) Feeding, care and man- 
agement of horses, (d) Unsoundness and disease. 
Exercise No. 30: 

Pur-pose: To become familiar with the conformation or judging 
points of the draft horse. 

Procedure: Become familiar with all of the parts mentioned in the 
score card by an actual study of the animal itself. 



IN AGRICULTURE 




35 


SCORE CARD FOR DRAFT HORSES 




Perfect 
Score 


Student's 
Score 



General Appearance — 16 points. Weight, over 1,500 lbs. score 
according to age 

Form : broad, massive, properly proportioned 

Quality : smooth bone, tendons, lean and set back from 
bone in legs ; skin and hair fine 

Temperament: energetic, good disposition 

Head and Neck — 6 points. Head : lean, medium size ; face 
straight ; jaws deep, and wide at throat 

Muzzle, fine ; nostrils, large ; lips, thin and even 

Eyes: full, bright, clear, intelligent 

Forehead : broad, full ; flat in mares and geldings 

Ears: medium size, well carried 

Neck, muscled ; crest, high ; throat latch, clean ; windpipe, large 

Forequarters — 25 points. Shoulder: sloping, smooth, snug; 

extending into back 

Arm : thrown back, heavily muscled 

Forearm : heavily muscled, long, wide 

Knees : wide, cleancut, straight, deep, strongly supported.. 

Cannons: short, lean, wide; sinews: large, set back 

Fetlocks: wide, straight, strong 

Pasterns: sloping about 45 degrees, long, strong 

Feet : large, even size ; horn, dense ; sole, concave ; bars, 
strong ; frog, large, elastic ; heel, wide, one-half length 
of toe, and vertical to ground 

Legs : viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point 
of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee, 
cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, a perpen- 
dicular line dropping from the center of the elbow joint 
should fall upon the center of the knee and pastern 

joints, and back of hoof 

Body — 9 points. Chest : deep, wide, low, large girth 

Ribs : long, close, arched wide from backbone 

Back: straight, short, broad 

Loins: short, wide, thick, straight 

Underline : flank low, smoothly muscled to stifle 

Hindquarters — 34 points. Hips: smooth, wide 

Croup : wide, muscular, not much slope to tailhead 

Tail : attached high, well carried 

Quarters: deep, heavily muscled 

Hocks : clean cut, wide, straight -. 

Cannons : short, wide ; sinews large, set back 

Fetlocks: wide, straight, strong 

Pastern : sloping, strong, lengthy 

Feet : large, even size ; horn, dense ; sole, concave ; bars, 
strong ; frog, large, elastic ; heel, wide, half length of 
toe, vertical to ground 

Legs: viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from the 
point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the 
hock, cannon, pastern and foot. From side, a perpen- 
dicular line from the hip joint should fall upon the 
center of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle ; 
and a perpendicular line from the point of buttock 

should run parallel to the point of the cannon 

Action — 10 points. Walk, quick, long, balanced 

Trot: rapid, straight, regular 

Total 



100 



36 COURSEOFSTUDY 



DECEMBER: Fourth Week 

Topic: Feeds and Feeding — (Text, pp. 211-217.) 

Other References: 1; 8; 36; 43; 100; 111; 170-A; 178; 200. 
Lesson Topics: (a) The food of plants; of animals. How plants get 
their food; how animals get their food. The plant compounds 
(starch, fat, protein, etc.) used by animals. (b) How food is 
digested by cows; by horses; by chickens; by pigs; by men. (c) 
The balanced ration; what it is. How computations are made, (d) 
Balanced rations for work horses; dairy cows; laying hens. 

JANUARY: FIRST Week 
Topic: Farm Management. 

Other References: 14; 77; 91; 98; 114; 116; 132; 134- A; 140-A; 
156; 174-A; 200; 202; 204; 315; 338; 352; 357; 372; 379. 

Suggestion: The work of this week is designed to awaken an interest 
in the economic and business phases of farming. Encourage the 
pupils to make such a study of their home farms or of some farm 
in the community. 

Lesson Topics: (a) Methods of selling farm products. Advantages 
and disadvantages of selling through commission merchants; coop- 
erative associations; direct (parcel post), (b) Some typical suc- 
cessful farms; methods used; equipment, profits. 

Exercise No. 31 : 

Purpose: To make a map of the home farm and to locate the fields 
so there will be the greatest efficiency of time and labor in fencing, 
planting, cultivating and harvesting the crops. 

Procedure: (a) Draw a map of the home farm to scale. Indicate 
thereon the fields, pastures, woodlot, orchard, etc. Show, by writing 
in the space occupied by each field, what crops have been grown 
there during the past four years. To make the most efficient 
use of farm machinery and labor, the fields should be laid out 
in rectangles whenever possible. In any event, every field should 
have square corners. Pastures and wood lots can be most 
cheaply fenced when they are square. On many farms there are 
low or wet spots needing drainage, stumpy places needing clearing, 
etc., which break up the regularity of the field and cause much 
extra labor. While such changes cannot be made in a year, the 
farm owner should have definitely in mind some ultimate plan 
which will enable him to utilize both his land, labor and machinery 
in the most efficient manner. (b) Make a new ideal plan for 
the home farm, showing all of the changes in the field line and 
rotation plan, that you think should be made, (c) Make an inven- 
tory of the home farm, listing all of the livestock, implements, 
lands, crops, etc., and giving the value of each, (d) Determine 
the amount of the owner's capital and find out what the interest 
on that capital would be at 6 per cent. Subtract the amount of 
the interest from the farmer's net income. The amount that 
remains, represents the farmer's income or the money he has 
received for his year's labor. The net income is the amount that 
remains after the sums paid for hired labor, fertilizer, seed, taxes, 
depreciation of buildings and machinery, etc., have been sub- 
tracted from the farmer's gross income. The gross income is the 
money received for crops, livestock, etc. 



IN AGRICULTURE 37 

JANUARY: Second Week 

Topic: Farm Machinery — (Text, pp. 232-234.) 

Other References: 101; 110-B; 204. 

Suggestions: Two important ideas are to be developed in connection 
with this topic. The first is the enormous loss suffered by 
farmers because of the mistreatment of their farming implements. 
The second is the effect improved farm machinery has had upon 
farming and upon civilization. 

Lesson Topics: (a) Discuss the evolution of the plow and other 
tillage implements, and the effect upon agriculture, (b) Discuss 
the evolution of wheat harvesting machinery; the effect upon food 
prices, (c) The care of farm implements; the average life and 
the possible life of grain binders, mowers, harrows, etc. Annual 
loss to farmers due to neglect. 

Field Trip: Take the class to some implement house so they may 
become familiar with the latest type of farm implements. Arrange 
in advance with the dealer and induce him to give the class a talk 
on the uses of the various kinds of plows, cultivators, etc. 

Exercise No. 32: 

Purpose: To become familiar with the different types of farm imple- 
ments and the uses of each. 

Procedure : Have the pupils make a list of different kinds of tillage 
implements they should buy for orcharding, general farming, 
special farming (market gardening, etc.). Reasons should be 
given for the selection. Implement catalogues can be obtained 
free from any dealer, and these should be placed in the school 
library. 



JANUARY: Third Week 



Topic : Forestry. 



Other References: 44; 67; 107; 114-A; 128; 143-B; 144; 200; 202; 
204; 311; 317; 361; 378. 

Suggestion: The great forest wealth of the Pacific Northwest deserves 
at least a week's intensive study. The true meaning of conservation 
and the relation of the forest cover to erosion, stream flow, irriga- 
tion, floods, etc., should be brought out. The annual losses caused by 
forest fires; their cause and prevention, should also be considered. 

Lesson Topics: (a) The important forest trees of the State, the 
acreage, value and use of the different woods, (b) Destructive 
and constructive lumbering. Cite examples, (c) The principles 
of forestry, (d) Utilization of forest waste; forest by-products, 
(e) The cause and prevention of forest fires. 



38 COURSEOFSTUDY 

Exercise No. 33: 
(Demonstration.) 

Piayose: To demonstrate that the spongey nature of the forest floor 
aids in retaining the rainfall and checking floods. 

Procedure: Prepare a mound of loose fresh earth two to three feet 
in diameter at the base and from 20 to 30 inches high. Pack the 
mound quite solidly so as to approximate the natural condition of 
the earth's surface. Cover over one side of this mound with moss 
or leaves, being sure that no spots are left exposed. Thrust small 
twigs of evergreens into the moss so as to make a miniature 
forest on that side of the mound. Leave the other side bare. Take 
a sprinkling pot and sprinkle water upon the mound, first on the 
"forest" side, then on the barren side of the mound. Let the water 
fall from a distance of about three feet. Note how the water 
gullies the bare slope, running off in muddy streams at the base 
of the mound, while on the "forest covered" slope the water remains 
clear and no erosion takes place. Note also that the water runs 
off more rapidly on the bare side than it does on the other. With 
these facts in mind, what do you think would result if the forests 
were removed from the mountain sides? 

JANUARY: Fourth Week 

Topic: Horticulture — Orcharding. (Text, pp. 88-93.) 

Other References: 4; 25; 37; 39; 42; 55; 60; 62; 145; 146; 146-D; 
189; 200; 202; 204; 310; 313; 363. 

Suggestions: The pupils should become familiar with the different 
fruit sections of the State (the elevation, kinds of soil, varieties 
grown, etc.) . If orchards are available, arrangements should be 
made so the pupils can observe or get practice in pruning. 

Lessoyi Topics: (a) The fruit districts of Oregon; the best varieties 
to be grown in each, (b) The fruit sections of the United States; 
the best varieties; markets; methods, etc. (d) The Why and How 
of Pruning. (c) Methods in planning and planting orchards. 
Selection and care of young trees. 

Exercise No. 34: 

Purpose: To plan a good home fruit orchard suitable to the section 
in which the pupil resides. 

Materials: A ruler, sheet of paper and some of the references given. 

Procedure: Make a list of all the varieties of tree fruits and small 
fruits that can be grown in your section. Re-group these varieties 
according to their season or time of maturity. Draw to scale a 
one-acre home fruit orchard, and another of five acres. Indicate 
on these maps, by crosses and dotted lines, the location of the 
various fruit trees and rows of small fruits that have been selected. 
The selection should be so made that early, medium and late varie- 
ties of each kind of fruit will be included. 



IN AGRICULTURE 



FEBRUARY: First Week 

Topic: Horticulture — Home Garden Planning. (Text, pp. 179-180; 
247-267.) 

References: 13; 37; 55; 64; 79; 80; 81; 92; 94; 133; 143; 200; 204; 
220. 

Suggestions: "A garden for every home and a child for every gar- 
den." There is no one activity of the school, especially so far as 
the agricultural work is concerned, that will produce such imme- 
diate effects in the home, as will practical work in gardening. A 
well-planned garden can be made to yield a good vacation income 
for children, can help reduce the cost of living and will give boys 
and girls excellent training in practical agriculture. 

Lesson Topics: (a) The need of garden planning. Meaning of com- 
panion cropping; succession cropping. (b) Study of seed cata- 
logues. Selection of varieties best suited to soil, climate and season 
of year, (c) Methods of starting or forcing plants under glass. 
Crops to be sown and transplanted, (d) Hot-beds and cold frames. 
Principles; construction; use. 



Exercise No. 35: 

Purpose: To plan the home garden so there may be a continuous and 
bountiful supply of vegetables with the least possible labor and cost. 

Materials : A ruler, pen or pencil, sheet of paper and seed catalogue 
for each pupil. (Each pupil should bring a seed catalogue from 
home or write for one.) 

Procedure: Determine the size of the garden in feet and then draw 
the garden to scale (4, 8 or 16 feet to the inch). Select the vege- 
tables desired for the early garden, the summer garden and for fall 
and winter. Look up the cultural directions given for each variety 
in the seed catalogue. Indicate, by dotted lines on the garden map, 
the rows closely planted crops are to occupy; and, by X, the 
places in the rows occupied by such plants as squash, melons, toma- 
toes, cabbage, etc. So plan the planting scheme that the greatest 
possible amount of vegetables can be produced. This is done by 
companion cropping and succession cropping. 

Explanation: By companion cropping we mean the planting of such 
rapid growing vegetables as radishes, lettuce, onion sets, greens, 
etc., between such slow growing plants as cabbage, melon, cauli- 
flower, tomatoes, etc., which require considerable room when 
mature, but leave much vacant space in the rows when young. Suc- 
cession cropping means the constant utilization of the garden by 
planting some new crop as soon as another has matured. For 
instance, early peas may be followed by late peas or cabbage, 
celery, etc. The seasonal requirements of varieties must also be 
taken into consideration, for varieties which may do well in early 
spring might be a failure in late summer or fall. 



40 COURSEOFSTUDY 



FEBRUARY: Second Week 

Topic: Horticulture — Landscape Gardening; School and Home Ground 
Beautification. (Text, pp. 268-283.) 

References: 33; 49; 53; 64; 75; 148-A; 200. 

Suggestions: The study of landscape gardening should have a prac- 
tical application. Definite plans for the improvement of the 
school and home grounds, should be made and followed. The 
necessary seeds and shrubs can be obtained at little or no cost 
and the school made a place of beauty. 

Lesson Topics: (a) The principles of landscape gardening, (b) The 
selection, propagation and care of ornamental plants and shrubs, 
(c) The selection, planting, and culture of shade trees. (Select the 
trees and prepare the ground now for Arbor Day planting.) 

Exercise No. 36: 

Purpose: To make working plans for the landscaping of the school 
grounds. 

Materials: Each pupil should be supplied with a ruler, pencil, sheet of 
paper. Two or three nursery catalogues should be obtained for the 
use of the school. 

Procedure : Each pupil is to draw the school grounds to scale, locat- 
ing the school and outbuildings in their proper places on the map. 
Keeping in mind the principles of landscape gardening, and after 
careful study of the descriptions of the various flowers, shrubs and 
trees given in the catalogue, each pupil should indicate on his map 
the places where he should place each plant or group of plants. 
The principles of color, harmony, and design should be kept in 
mind. All slopes, ditches, wells, trees, etc., on the school grounds 
should be indicated on the map. 

Sugg'Sstions: The teacher should send the best maps of the school 
grounds to the Professor of Landscape Gardening, Oregon Agricul- 
tural College, who will criticise the drawings and give sugges- 
tions. By a liberal use of the native flowers, shrubs and trees, 
the school grounds can be beautified at very little expense. 

Exercise No. 37: 

Purpose: To make working plans for the beautifying of the home 
grounds. 

Materials : Same as in the previous exercise. 

Procedure: Same as in previous exercise, only the pupils are to use 
their own homes as the basis of the work. A list of all the trees, 
shrubs and flowers which grow well in the neighborhood, should 
be made and grouped according to their suitability for fence rows?, 
driveways, borders, beds, etc. 

Suggestions: A practical bearing can be given this work by encour- 
aging a flower-growing contest among the children. The flowers 
are to be grown at home and an exhibit can be held next fall as 
soon as school opens. 



IN AGRICULTURE 41 

FEBRUARY: Third Week 

Topic: The Country Home and its Surroundings — (Text, pp. 240-246.) 
References: 27; 49; 117-A; 119-A; 143-A; 143-B; 145-B; 145-F; 
200; 362. 

Lesson Topics: (a) How can the farm home be supplied with good 
pure water? Describe various methods for disposing of the sewage 
from the farm house. Tell about the disposal of sewage in our 
cities, (b) What farm buildings are best made of concrete? Of 
wood? (c) Compare the advantages and disadvantages of coun- 
try life with those of the city, (d) Describe the farm house con- 
veniences and labor-saving appliances that should be found in 
every farm home. 

Exercise No. 38: 

Purpose: To study and plan the farm home from the standpoint of 
efficiency and sanitation. 

Procedure: (a) Each pupil should draw to scale a plan of his own 
farmstead or that of a neighbor (a farmstead includes the houses, 
outbuildings, barnyard, pig pen, poultry yards, flower and vegeta- 
ble gardens, and the lawn or meadow near the house), (b) Each 
pupil should next draw the plans of an ideal farmstead, having 
the farm buildings arranged so that they will be most convenient 
and accessible. There should be a proper distance between house 
and barn, poultry yard, and pig pens, as well as ease of reaching 
the fields, (c) Compare the best ideal and the best actual farm- 
stead plan and show where changes can be made in each to 
advantage. 

Suggestions: The farmstead should be conveniently arranged, prac- 
tical in the grouping of its farm buildings, sanitary as regards its 
water supply, sewage disposal and manure piles, and beautiful 
in its general setting. 

FEBRUARY: Fourth Week 

Topic: Poultry Husbandry — Hatching and Rearing Chicks. (Text, 
pp. 204-207.) 

Other References: 69; 93; 162; 163; 173; 176; 180; 200; 218; 233. 

Suggestion: The pupils who are interested in poultry should be 
encouraged to set one or more hens at home. If the loan of a 
small-sized incubator can be secured, run it at school and let each 
pupil take turns in tending the machine. 

Lesson Topics: (a) Management of setting hens or incubator, (b) 
The housing of young chicks (fireless-brooders; hen-brooders and 
other home-made shelters), (c) The care and feeding of young 
chicks, (d) The care and feeding of pullets and breeding stock, 
(e) Marketing surplus roosters. The preservation of eggs. (Cold 
storage, water glass, lime water, etc.) 



42 COURSEOFSTUDY 

MARCH: First Week 

Topic: Crop Production — Wheat, Corn, Potatoes. (Text, pp. 163-168.) 
References: 5; 68; 70; 78; 110; 114-D; 117; 118-B; 122; 124; 126; 

131; 164; 165; 320; 335; 360; 372. 
Suggestions: Study the crop of most importance in your community. 
Encourage the Industrial Club members who are undertaking the 
corn or potato projects to tell the class what they know regarding 
corn and potato production. 
Lesson Topics: (a) Selection, preparation and treatment of seed, 
(b) The proper preparation of the seed bed. (c) Methods ot 
planting. (d) Cultivation and irrigation. Disease control. 

Exercise No. 39: 

Test seed corn by the blotter, "rag doll" or sand-box method. 

Purpose: To determine the viability or germinating quality of corn 
(or any other field or garden seed) by the sand-box method. (See 
reference No. 124.) 

Materials : A shallow wooden tray two inches deep inside, 20 inches 
■ wide and 24 to 30 inches long (this can be constructed by the 
pupils out of cracker boxes). Stout twine, carpet tacks, a ruler 
and pencil and sand enough to fill the tray. 

Procedure : Fill the tray level full with moist sand. The surface of 
the sand should then be divided into little two-inch squares by 
driving the tacks on the outside of the tray and lacing the twine 
back and forth across the top. Each square should be numbered by 
beginning at the lower lefthand corner and numbering up in the 
perpendicular rows, running from left to right across the tray. 
Next lay out the seed corn ears or samples of other seeds, whose 
viability is to be tested. Arrange them in a row where they will not 
be disturbed and number them. In testing the seed corn, remove six 
kernels from each ear with a pocket knife. Take one kernel each 
from near the tip, middle and butt on one side of the ear, then turn 
the ear over and take three kernels in like manner from the oppo- 
site side of the ear. Imbed these kernels, point down, in the sand, 
in the square corresponding to the numbers of the ears. Thus six 
kernels from ear No. 1 will go in square No. 1, etc. After all the 
kernels have been planted, spread a moist cloth over the tray. On 
top of this place two wet burlap bags, care being taken to see that 
the burlap is pressed down tightly at the corners and along th6 
sides so that all the kernels are kept uniformly moist. Place the 
box near a stove where it is warm and where the temperature never 
goes below freezing. Do not let the burlap dry out. Within four to 
seven days, depending on the temperature at which the box is kept, 
the kernels will have germinated sufficiently to permit the selection 
of the best ears for seed. Remove the bags and cloth. The kernels 
in each square should be examined. Those from some ears may not 
germinate at all ; others may do so, but very weakly, and still others 
will be found to have germinated vigorously with strong healthy 
sprouts. Only the ears represented by the latter should be saved 
for seed. All others should be discarded. Samples of other 
varieties of seeds may be tested in a similar manner. 



IN AGRICULTU RE 



MARCH: Second Week 

Topic: Legumes — Alfalfa, Clover, Vetch, Peas, etc. (Text, pp. 290-297.) 
Other References: 52; 66; 83; 88; 90; 102; 104; 109; 112; 116-B; 

131; 139; 140; 146-A; 149; 158; 246; 248; 367. 
Suggestions: Leg-umes of some kind can be grown in nearly every 

part of the State. The type most common and valuable in the 

community should be studied in the school. 
Lesson Topics: (a) Kinds and value of the legumes grown in the 

county; in the State, (b) The legumes are nitrogen gatherers. 

Meaning and importance of this fact, (c) The root nodules or 

tubercules. The nitrogen-gathering bacteria, (d) The place of 

legumes in the diet of farm animals; in the crop rotation plan. 

Exercise No. 40: 

Purpose: To study the roots of legumes. 

Mate7'ial: A collection of as large an assortment of legumes, roots 
intact, as can be obtained (white, red and sweet clovers, beans, 
peas, alfalfa, vetches, etc.) . The plants should be carefully dug, 
not pulled up. 

Procedure: Examine the roots of the legumes collected for the nodules 
or tubercules. What is the shape of the nodules on the various 
plants? Make a drawing of the roots of some common legume and 
show the nodules. 

Exercise No. 41: 

Purpose: To become familiar with the character of clover or alfalfa 
seed and some of the adulterants. 

Material: A one-ounce sample of clover or alfalfa seed for each of 
the pupils may be obtained from the homes of the pupils, or pur- 
chased at a seed store. 

Procedure: Place the seed sample on a sheet of white paper. Sepa- 
rate the large, plump legume seeds from the small, shriveled or 
broken seeds and other material. Make four groups of seeds as 
follows: Large legume seeds. Small or broken seed. Weed seed. 
Inert matter (chaff, etc.). 

Suggestions: If the seeds examined appear to contain much foul 
matter, send a sample to the Seed Testing Laboratory, O. A. C. 
and the names of the weed seeds and per cent of foul matter will 
be sent back. 

MARCH: Third Week 

Topic: Plant Study — Conditions Essential to Plant Growth. 

References: 123; 124. 

Suggestions: The work of the week is to consist of the exercises out- 
lined for each day. As it will take more than the regular amount 
of class time to set up some of the exercises, pupils should be 
permitted to work on them as soon as they have their lessons. 
Some of the exercises may take several days for their completion, 
and the pupils should be required to make daily reports on the 
progress or outcome of each one. 



44 COURSEOFSTUDY 



Exercise No. 42: 

Purpose: To study the effect of light upon plant growth. 

Material: Two flower pots or tin cans provided with drainage holes, 
a paper cone to cover one, and some seed of garden peas or beans. 

Procedure : Plant two pots in just the same way, with either peas or 
beans. Place them under conditions where they will have the same 
temperature and give them the same amount of water. Place one 
of the pots in a window where it will make a normal growth, 
and over the other place the paper cone, which will exclude light. 
At the end of a sufficient time, or better still, at frequent inter- 
vals during the growth of the plant, observe the appearance of the 
two sets of plants under these different conditions. After the 
plants from which the light has been excluded have grown to sev- 
eral inches, remove the covering and note what changes take place 
in the appearance of them after they are placed in full sunlight. 

Suggestions: Recall the way in which plants growing in a poorly- 
lighted room search for a window. Recall the sprouting of pota- 
toes in a cellar. Notice the effort which forest trees, growing 
close together, make to send their branches up into the light. 
Trees which are growing close together grow much taller and 
more spindling than other trees of the same kind growing in 
open conditions. Would there be any difference in the value of the 
wood for commercial purposes from trees of the same kind grown 
under closely shaded and open conditions? Explain fully. 

Exercise No. 43: 

Purpose: To study the effect of heat upon plant growth. 

Material: Several flower pots or tin cans; soil to fill these; some 
radish seed, and a thermometer. 

Procedure: Mix earth of pots or cans which will be treated just 
alike and in which seeds of radish will be sown. Set these out- 
doors and cover one entirely with a pane of glass, leaving just a 
small crack for ventilation, and leave the other can open. Place 
a themometer in each, so that the temperature may be recorded, 
and then note several times a day for two or three weeks, the 
appearance and development of the plants under the two different 
conditions. 

Suggestions: Conclusions may be drawn in this way concerning the 
relation of heat to the germination and growth of the plant. Keep 
notes in tabular form, noting the tempei-atures, and the average 
growth of the plants. Is it possible to become so cold that seeds 
will not germinate and plants grow? May the temperature be too 
high for growth? From your observations on these experiments 
what would you say would be the most desirable temperature for 
the growth of radish? 



INAGRICULTURE 45 



Exercise No. 44: 

Purpose: To study the effect of air upon plant growth. 

Material: Three tumblers, soil to fill these, preferably containing 
considerable clay, a few seeds of beans and peas; two wide- 
mouthed bottles, and cuttings of some plant, such as coleus, gera- 
nium or wandering jew. 

Procedure: (a) To illustrate the necessity of air for germination, 
fill the three tumblers mentioned with soil in the ordinary way, 
having it moderately moist. In one, plant one-half dozen seeds of 
beans or peas, whichever may be used, and allow it to sit in 
the room and grow under ordinary conditions. Plant the second 
tumbler in the same way but keep the soil saturated with water 
so that there is a thin film of water standing over the top of the 
soil, in this way excluding the air from between the soil particles. 
Treat the third tumbler in the same way, only instead of leaving 
it in the room at ordinary temperature, put it outside where the 
temperature is rather low. At the end of a sufficient time note 
in which tumbler the seeds have germinated first, (b) Boil some 
water to drive out the oxygen, or air, place in two wide-mouthed 
bottles, cover one with a thin layer of oil to prevent air from 
entering. Insert a cutting of whatever plant is used through a 
piece of cardboard which exactly fits over the top of the bottle 
and allow it to project down into the water. Note the effect of 
the absence of air on the growth of the roots. 

Suggestions: Ask yourself these questions: May a soil become so wet 
that not enough air will be found between the particles of the 
soil to allow seed to germinate? What happens to seeds when 
they are kept in a cold, wet soil? What is the effect of the absence 
of air in the soil on the growth of roots? Why is air necessary 
for germination? 

Exercise No. 45: 

Purpose: To study the effect of water upon plant growth. 

Material: Two flower pots or tin cans, some soil and any common 
garden seed. 

Procedure: Fill the pots with soil and plant the seed. Have them 
grow under exactly the same conditions, except that water is 
withheld from one pot for several days during the time the seed 
is germinating and again after the seedlings get to be some size. 
Make a record of the differences which are found in the two pots. 

Suggestions: What is the effect of withholding water from seed 
before they have germinated? What is the effect of a lack of 
moisture on growing plants? Why is it that plants do not thrive 
well during drouth? 



46 COURSEOFSTUDY 

Exercise No. 46: 

Purpose: To study the effect of food upon plant growth. 

Materials: Plant 100 wheat grains in a germinator (moistened blot- 
ters between two plates) one week before the exercise is started; 
nine tomato cans, tops removed and provided with drainage holes; 
two gallons of clean, dry sand; two ounces each of sodium nitrate; 
acid phosphate; muriate of potash, and a pint of dry, well rotted 
manure (enough of the three commercial fertilizers mentioned for 
use in this exercise can be obtained from a drugstoi'e or seed house 
for 10 cents). 

Procedure: Fill eight of the nine cans full of clean, dry sand. Label 
the cans A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H and I, respectively. Empty the 
contents of can B on a newspaper; thoroughly mix one ounce of 
sodium nitrate with this sand and replace mixture in the can. 
Treat the contents of can C in a similar manner, using one ounce 
of acid phosphate instead of the nitrate. Do the same with can D, 
using the potash instead of the nitrate or phosphate. Mix one 
ounce each of the phosphate, nitrate and potash fertilizers with the 
contents of can F. Refill can G with a mixture consisting of one- 
half sand and one-half finely pulverized manure. Fill can H with 
rich garden loam. Cans A, E and I will contain nothing but the 
pure sand. Plant five vigorous wheat seedlings (taken from the 
germinator) one-fourth inch deep in each can. Water each can 
with pure rain or well water three times a week, using a half 
teacupful each application. At the end of three weeks, compare 
the growth of the plants in the different cans, noting especially 
their color, vigor, height and root development. 

Suggestions: At the end of the experiment, the following questions 
should be asked: What effect upon the growth of plants has 
a soil containing no plant food? What is the effect of the 
omission of each one of the principal plant food elements from the 
soil in which the plant is growing? Which seemed to be the most 
important fertilizers? What are the sources of the plant food 
elements in nature? If a farmer's land were lacking in nitrogen, 
what would be the most inexpensive method of supplying it? 

MARCH: Fourth Week 

Topic: Horticulture — Planting the Garden. (Text, pp. 247-267.) 
References: 35; 37; 80; 134; 200. 

Suggestions: The class work of this week should be based as far as 
possible upon the work the pupils are doing in their school or home 
gardens. 

Exercise: Care versus carelessness in transplanting cabbage, toma- 
toes, celery, etc. Soaking of seed. Depth and method of planting. 

Lesson Topics: (a) Fertilizing and preparing the seed bed. (b) 
Methods of planting and transplanting. (c) Cultivation and 
thinning, (d) Irrigation; right and wrong methods. 



INAGRICULTURE 47 



Exercise No. 47: 

Purpose: To demonstrate some practical methods in gardening. 
Materials: Young cabbage, celery or tomato plants. One-half pint 

bean or pea seed. Small quantities of radish, lettuce, onion and 

pea seeds. 

Procedure :^ (a) Having started some cabbage, tomato or celery 
plants in flats or in a hot-bed, transplant half of them very care- 
fully, first moistening the soil so the earth will cling to the roots. 
Carefully lift the plants so the roots will be as little disturbed as 
possible. When transplanting, pack the dirt tightly about their 
roots and trim the leaves back so that the roots will be able to 
supply the remaining leaves with enough water. Transplant the 
rest of the plants without taking any of these precautions. Which 
plants do the best? If you were planting for commercial purposes, 
which method would you use? (b) Soak some bean or pea seed 
over night and plant half a row in the garden, finishing the row 
with dry, unsoaked seed. Which came up first? Which made 
the stronger and better growth eventually? (c) Plant a row of 
radish, lettuce, peas and onions, dividing each row into four 
sections. In section 1, plant the seeds to a uniform depth of 
three inches; section 2, to a depth of two inches; section 3, to a 
depth of one inch, and section 4, to a depth of one-half or one- 
fourth inch, depending upon the size of the seeds. Note how long 
the seeds in the different sections were in coming up. Did any 
fail to come up at all? 

APRIL: First Week 

Topic: Plant Study— How Plants Feed. (Text, pp. 27-35.) 
Other References: 123; 124. 

Exercise No. 48: 

Purpose: To show that plants get water from the soil and not from 
the air. 

Material: Two tin cans, with drainage holes; some fine garden soil 
from which pebbles and clods have been sifted out; a few kernels 
of corn. 

Procedure: Fill each can with soil, tamping it down well so as to 
have it about the same consistency in each can. Plant six kernels 
of corn in one of the cans. Water both cans just alike so that the 
soil in each will contain the same amount of water. Do not allow 
the soils to dry out. As soon as the corn plants attain a height 
of four to six inches, water each can thoroughly; and as soon as 
the water has ceased draining from each, weigh and record the 
weights. ^ Continue to weigh each pot at frequent intervals, and 
note which one decreases in weight more rapidly. 



48 COURSEOFSTUDY 



Suggestions: This will enable one to tell which one of the jars is 
losing weight from the consumption of moisture. If water is with- 
held from each of the jars for a time after the plants get started 
to growing, a perceptible difference in the drying out may be 
noticed. If the soil in the pot which contains the growing corn 
dries out more rapidly, what has become of the moisture? If the 
moisture was being taken up by the plant from the air, would not 
the weight of the pot containing the corn increase rather than 
decrease? As the corn increases in size, does it use more or less 
water? Allow the soil to become dry in the can and note the effect 
upon the corn. Describe the appearance of the leaves of a corn 
plant in a field during a drouth. What does this mean? 

Exercise No. 49: 

Purpose: To show how food and water get into the roots of plants. — 
(Osmosis.) 

Materials: (1) A piece of glass tubing 12 inches long of Vs to % 
inch diameter. (If you cannot obtain this tubing locally, write to 
the Department of Agricultural Education. Oregon Agricultural 
College, Corvallis, and a piece of tubing will be sent free.) (2) 
Two sausage skins 4 to 6 inches long and % to 2 inches in diam- 
eter. (These may be obtained by purchasing the ordinary link 
sausage that have a thick skin or membraneous covering and care- 
fully removing the contents with the fingers, being careful not to 
rupture the membrane. If these skins are soaked in water for a 
few minutes they may be turned inside out and all of the meat 
particles removed.) (3) A quarter cup of sj^rup or granulated 
sugar. (4) A can or lard pail provided with drainage holes; 
a shallow dish; soil. 

Method: (a) See that one end of the sausage skin is securely tied. 
Fill the sack thus formed nearly full of the syrup, or half full of 
sugar and then add Vv^ater enough to nearly fill, (b) Insert the 
glass tubing into the sack opening to a depth of one inch and then 
tie the top of the sack to the tubing. Two such membraneous 
sacks should be prepared. (A) Suspend one sack half its length in 
water, supporting the tubing so that it will stand perpendicularly. 
When this sack is placed in the water, the contents of the sack 
should just fill the lower inch of tubing. Observe the apparatus 
every fifteen minutes and note the rapidity with which the liquid 
rises in the tubing. (B) Bury the other sack in an upright posi- 
tion in a can of garden soil. Support the tubing with a stick so 
that it will remain perpendicular. Moisten the soil until drainage 
begins, then place the can into a shallow dish of water. Note the 
rapidity and height to which the liquid rises in the tubing. 



INAGRICULTURE 49 

Application: It is easy to perform an osmosis experiment but often 
hard to explain to students. This exercise, it is hoped, will make 
such an explanation much easier. Water gets into the roots of 
plants through the root hairs. The root hairs are tiny little sacks 
very much like the sausage skin, filled with a liquid comparable to 
the syrupy solution. No holes exist in either the membraneous 
walls of the root-hairs other than the opening into the main root 
cells, or in the membraneous sausage skin, so far as the microscope 
reveals, and liquids can pass through only by that process called 
osmosis. That dissolved mineral substances can also osmose 
through the membrane can be demonstrated by putting a little 
ink in water outside of the sack and then noting the change of 
color of the liquid in the tube. The sausage-skin sack mentioned 
in Exercise B, roughly approximates the structure and function of 
a root hair. The sack and sugar solution represents the root hair 
and cell contents, while the glass tube is the opening into the 
plant roots. The long glass tube is used simply to demonstrate the 
pressure or force that osmosis exerts against gravity. When the 
sack is buried in soil, kept moistened by the capillary rise of 
water from below, we have demonstrated, on a large scale, what 
is occurring in the thousands and millions of little root hairs on 
each plant. 

Exercise No. 50: 

Purpose: To show what becomes of the water absorbed by plants. 
(Transpiration.) 

Material: Any plant which has been well started in a tomato can 
and is now several inches high. Select some plant which has 
considerable leaf area. An ordinary glass tumbler and a piece of 
cardboard. 

Procedure: Cut a slit in the piece of cardboard and draw it around 
the plant and allow it to rest on top of the can. Over this place 
the tumbler and seal all the places where air might escape with 
sealing wax or paraffin. After the tumbler has been over the 
plant for several hours, or possibly over night, note the collection 
of drops of moisture on the inside of the tumbler. During the day 
keep the apparatus sitting in a bright sunny place. 

Suggestion: Where did this moisture come from? Was it originally 
in liquid form? Why does it collect in drops on the cool glass 
tumbler? 

Exercise No. 51 : 

Vurpose: To show how water circulates in plants. 

Material: A tumbler containing water to which a few drops of red 
ink or other brilliant dye has been added. Cuttings of any herb- 
aceous plant, such as geranium or coleus, or flowers with long 
stems, preferably white flowers as carnations or lilies of the valley. 



50 COURSEOFSTUDY 

Procedure: Stand the freshly cut ends of the flowers or stems in this 
red liquid and note that in a short time the color will rise through 
the stem and be distributed in the white petals of the flower 
through the veins or through the young stems and carried out in 
the young leaves. Hold the petals and leaves up to the light and 
note the pattern of the veins which is now outlined in red. 

Suggestions: If water containing red ink will travel in this way out 
into the petals and leaves of the plant, would water containing 
plant food travel in the same way? Note the difference of time 
which it takes in the different plants used, for the water to travel 
a given distance. In this way a rough estimate may be obtained 
of the rate at which plant food is distributed through the stem of 
a plant. 

Exercise No. 52: 

Purpose: To show that plants get food from the air. 

Material: A few pieces of green wood, some soil, a tin box with 
holes in the top and an iron spoon. 

Procedure: Put in the covered tin box with small holes in the top 
fine pieces of small twigs of some green wood and hold it over a 
hot fire until all the gas and smoke has been given off. Note the 
color and consistency of what remains. Apply a match to this. 
Will it burn? This is charcoal which is made almost entirely of 
carbon. Treat this by boiling in water and in a weak acid, such 
as vinegar. See if it can be dissolved. After these experiments, 
what would be your conclusion as to whether or not much soil 
material can be dissolved by soil water. Take a tablespoonful of 
soil and heat it red hot in an iron spoon. Was there much carbon 
in the soil? Nearly one-half of the solid material of the plant 
consists of carbon and it will be seen that there would not be 
nearly enough carbon in the soil to supply its needs. Hence the 
carbon must come_ from some other source. Take the charred 
sticks which were heated in the tin box in the first part of the 
experiment, place them in the spoon and heat them until only the 
ash remains. What has become of the carbon? It has been given 
off in the shape of gas called carbon dioxide, from which source 
plants may take it in through their leaves. Plants then discard 
most of the oxygen of the carbon dioxide and retain the carbon 
which it builds into new plant structures. 

Suggestions: If so large a proportion of the plant's body consists of 
carbon, why is it that the supply of carbon dioxide does not become 
exhausted on the earth? What are the sources of carbon dioxide 
in nature? Compare the effects of carbon dioxide on plant and 
animal life. 



IN AGRICULTURE 51 



APRIL : Second Week 

Topic: Plant Study— How Plants Grow and Multiply. (Text, pp. 77-80.) 
Other References: 123; 124. 

Suggestions : An intensive study of plant propagation should be made 
this week. The vegetables, flowers, shrubs and trees that grow in 
the pupils' yards should be utilized as far as possible. 

Exercise No. 53: 

Purpose : To study how the plant grows from the seed. 

Material: A glass jar or box with a glass side, and seeds of peas, 
beans, corn, squash, and also some small seeds such as radish, 
clover, turnip, etc. 

Procedure :^ Plant the seed in soil at varying depths against the side 
of the jar or box so that the growth or sprouting may be observed 
from the outside. Seeds of the small kinds may be planted at 
various depths and the effects of the depths of planting may be 
noticed and the length of time which it takes a seedling to reach 
the surface. Since these young germinating seeds are not able to 
take their food from the soil and from the air as has been found 
in previous exercises, what are the sources of food? Where does 
the food come from which causes the seed to germinate and the 
young seedlings to make their first growth? This may be illus- 
trated by taking a bean seedling which has just pushed through 
the ground and with a sharp knife take off the two half-beans, 
leaving intact the growing portion. Others should be left intact 
so a comparison can be made between those having the seed leaves 
removed and those which are growing normally. 

Suggestions: Compare the effect of the different depths of planting 
on each of the several kinds of seeds used. Which part of the 
seedling breaks through the seed coat first? Is it the root or the 
stem? Do all seeds have stored food? Where is it stored in the 
seed? What kind of food is this? Of what use is it to the plant? 

Exercise No. 54: 

Purpose: To show the propagation of plants by means of spores. 

Material: Some bread which has been kept moist and allowed to stand 
in the open air of the room for several days. A growth of mold 
will develop on it, which, after a short time will become covered 
with little black knobs elevated on stalks. Each one of these 
knobs is a spore case which contains numerous spores shaped some- 
thing like a grain of wheat. Other material which may be used is 
any common fern which is fruiting, that is, has on the back of its 
leaflets little dark brown patches or spots which are made up of 
clusters or spore cases. 



52 COURSEOFSTUDY 



Procedure: Put these under the microscope or hand lens, if possible, 
and note their shape, appearance, size, etc. Then collect certain 
spores from the material which you are studying and if bread 
mold is being used place these on another piece of moist bread 
from which all other air is being excluded, that is, put it under 
a glass jar or cover, or something of that nature and note the 
development of mold from the spores. 

Suggestions: The spores which are found on fern or on the bread 
mold take the place of seed in the higher plants, that is, they are 
the means by which the plant is propagated and they germinate 
and grow into new plants in a manner similar to which seed 
germinate and grow into new plants. It is a well known fact that 
bread will mold if exposed to ordinary air and kept moist. Why? 

Exercise No. 55: 

Purpose: To study propagation by natural division; buds, corms, 
tubers and stolons. 

Material: Maple buds, an onion, a corm of crocus, gladiolus or 
Indian turnip, strawberry plants. 

Procedure: Study each of these structures indoors as well as outside 
wherever possible. Cut the bud lengthwise. Note the number of 
small scales, leaves which fit close together over the growing point 
in the center. In the spring of the succeeding year this gi'owing 
point will continue to elongate and push its way out from between 
the leaves, which by that time will expand and in this way the 
growth of stem and leaves is provided for the succeeding year. 

The bulb consists of a number of close fitting layers or leaves 
which surround the growing point in the center. The onion is a 
good example. Cut lengthwise and study. 

A corm resembles the bulb in appearance but has this differ- 
ence, in that it is solid throughout. Study some corm, making 
lengthwise sections through it. Study the inner structure. 

Stolons are runners which grow from one plant to another or 
start from a plant and run along the surface of the ground and 
root at the joints. At this place another plant springs up, and then 
it runs along the ground and takes root a short distance further 
on. The strawberry is a good example of this. Study these plants 
out of doors in their natural growth as far as possible. 

Suggestions: After a study of these four different means of propa- 
gation of plants, which do you think would be the most effective 
or the most likely to succeed in its purpose in nature? Why is 
it an advantage to a plant to have more than a single means 
of propagation? Is the same plant ever propagated by seeds and 
spores? Is the same plant ever propagated by seeds and tubers? 
By bulbs and seeds? By seeds and stolons? 



IN AGRICULTURE 53 

Exercise No. 56: 

Purpose: To study propagation by artificial division; hardwood and 
softwood cuttings and layering. 

Material: Hardwood cuttings are obtained from the ripened wood of 
some deciduous plant of the same or previous year's growth. 
Cultivated plants commonly propagated by means of hardwood 
cuttings are grape, currants and gooseberries, and also some 
ornamental shrubs such as privet, etc., and some trees as willows, 
poplars and some conifers. Softwood cuttings are well illustrated 
by the "slips" which are used to propagate a number of house 
plants. Many greenhouse plants such as roses, carnations, geran- 
iums, begonias and the like are propagated in this way. Also some 
vegetables such as potatoes, when grown in greenhouses, sweet 
potatoes, etc. 

Procedure: Soft wood cuttings should always be started in sand on 
account of the fact that ordinary soil is liable to cause mold. 
Hardwood cuttings may be started in ordinary greenhouse soil. 
Preferably, cuttings should have about three buds. Start them 
indoors, with the exception of grape, which may be started out of 
doors by burying the basal ends several inches in the soil. 

In propagating by means of soft wood cuttings most of the leaf 
surface should be removed so as to lessen the amount of ti*anspira- 
tion, otherwise more water will be given off from the plant than 
the cut end in the soil can take up, until it has developed a root sys- 
tem. A layer is a branch so placed in contact with the earth as 
to induce it to throw out roots and shoots, thus producing more 
independent plants, the branch meanwhile remaining attached to 
the parent plant, which after a time is cut off and left to grow 
independently. 

Two kinds of layering are practiced. Tip layering is illus- 
trated by the black raspberry, the tips of the canes being bent over 
and covered with earth so that they will send out roots and shoots. 
After the plant has been well formed it is cut off from the 
parent plant. Vine layering is used sometimes in the propagation 
of grapes. Branches which come out near the ground are trained 
along the surface, and covered with earth. Shoots start from along 
this branch. It is a sure means of propagation in this plant. If 
opportunity permits, some plants may be propagated by the pupils 
in this manner. 

Suggestions: Compare propagation of plants by means of hardwood 
and softwood cuttings with propagation by means of seed, as to 
certainty of reproduction, rapidity with which new plants may be 
obtained, and the amount of labor required. 



54 COURSEOFSTUDY 

Exercise No. 57: 

Purpose: To study propagation by artificial division: budding and 
grafting. 

Materials: Some twigs of peach or apple trees, a knife for budding 
or grafting, some raffia for wrapping and some grafting wax. 

Procedure: The instructor should explain the different methods of 
grafting, and should demonstrate these before the class begins to 
do any of the work. 

The principle of grafting or budding is simply the bringing 
together of two portions of two different individual plants, usually 
of the same species, so that the cambium layers or growing portion 
will be brought into contact with each other. 

That portion of the plant which contains the root is known as 
the "stock" and the upper part which is grafted on to this is 
known as the "scion." Peaches and apples may be reproduced 
either by grafting or budding. It is important to see that the two 
portions after being fitted together are wrapped with some 
material which will not cut through the bark and will hold them 
firmly together so that they may grow quickly. The graft union is 
covered with wax made especially for the purpose (grafting wax), 
so as to exclude all air. If this is not done, the bacteria and 
fugus spores may enter and possibly cause certain rots or decay 
of the wood tissue at this point. If possible to secure scions and 
stocks it might be well to have each pupil graft or bud a tree and 
set it out on the school grounds. 

Suggestions: Why is it important in grafting, that the cambium 
layers of scion and stock be brought together? What do you under- 
stand by the word stock? By scion? Compare the efficiency of 
these two methods of gra.fting and budding as a means of 
pi'opagation. 

APRIL: Third Week 

Topic: Soil Study — Physical Properties. (Text, pp. 1-18.) 

References: 50; 74; 86; 123; 127-A; 240; 249. 

Suggestions : If these laboratory exercises can be performed outside 
of the regular agricultural period, this time can be given over to a 
class discussion of the topic being demonstrated. 



IN AGRICULTURE 55 

Exercise No. 58: 

Purpose: To study the soils of home fields or garden. 

Materials : A rule or yard stick, spade, three % pt. fruit jars, scales 
or balances registering % ounce or grammes. 

Procedure: Select a spot in the field or garden which is uniform with 
the balance of the field. Fill jar No. 1 with earth taken at a 
depth of six inches; No. 2 with earth taken at a depth of 12 
inches, and No. 3 at a depth of 24 inches. Place the samples 
in the schoolroom, keeping each pupil's collection together. Have 
the pupils note all the differences which may be apparent in the 
samples taken at different depths and in different fields. If scales 
or balances are available, have 10 ounce or 100 gramme air-dry 
samples of soil taken from each jar and placed in a metal pan or 
shovel and burned until the soil is red hot or has quit smoking. 
Weigh each sample of burned soil and record the weight. The 
difference represents the amount (plus a very small amount of 
water) of organic matter or humus contained in the soil. Have the 
children record on each jar of soil, in terms of per cent, the approx- 
imate amount of humus contained in the soil. 

Applicatio7i: The depth and the nature of the soil and subsoil on any 
farm is very important, likewise the amount of humus contained 
in the soil. Pupils should be encouraged to study the soils of their 
home farm and garden. 

Exercise No. 59: 

Purpose: To study the physical composition of soils. 

Materials: Samples (one or two quarts) of coarse sand; silt, 
(obtained from creek beds) and clay, 3 one-quart fruit jars; a 
quart pan. 

Procedure: (a) Examine with the fingers, the three samples of soil. 
Note the difference in size, shape feeling and color of the soil par- 
ticles, (b) Place equal amounts of sand, silt and clay (enough to 
fill the jar one-fourth full) in a fruit jar and fill with water. 
Fasten down the cover and shake the jar for one minute. Allow 
contents to settle. Note the separation of soil particles that occurs, 
(c) Have the students bring samples of soil from the home field 
and make a "water analysis" as in (b) . Does sand, silt or clay pre- 
dominate in their soils? (d) Place a small sample of ordinary soil 
in a jar, fill with water, fasten on the cover and shake. Allow the 
contents to settle for one hour and then strain the muddy top water 
through muslin into a shallow pan, to get rid of any coarse organic 
matter, and place in a warm sunny place to evaporate. When the 
water has evaporated and the residue is dry, rub a sample between 
the thumb and fingers. This residue is nearly pure clay. 

Application : All agricultural soils are composed of more or less finely 
ground rock (gravel, sand, silt and clay) and decomposed organic 
matter (humus). The kind of crops to be grown and the kind of 
implements to be used depends largely vipon the physical composi- 
tion of the soil. Encourage the students to examine both the sur- 
face and subsoil of their home fields and bring samples to school. 



56 COURSEOFSTUDY 

Exercise No. 60: 

Purpose: To study percolation, or how water moves downward in soils. 

Materials: Four student-lamp chimneys; cheese cloth; saucers. 

Procedure: (a) Tie pieces of cheese cloth over the small ends of 
four lamp chimneys and label them 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. Fill 
No. 1 to within one inch of the top with fine gravel; No. 2 with 
fine sand; No. 3 with clay, and No. 4 with soil from garden or 
field. Elevate the chimneys on two blocks of wood in a pan or 
saucer so that drainage is possible. Fill the space in the upper 
ends of the chimneys with water and keep filled until drainage 
begins in each. Note the relative rapidity Muth which the water 
sinks or percolates in each type of soil. 

Application: Rain, snow or irrigation water gets into the soil by per- 
colation, that is it sinks in response to the pull of gravity. Water 
percolates faster in some soils than in others. That is why one 
farmer can begin plowing immediately after a rain while another 
may have to wait a week. 

Exercise No. 61: 

Purpose: To study film water, or how water is held in a soil. 

Material: Five empty tomato cans, a liquid measure, fine sand, clay, 
humus and garden loam. 

Procedure: (a) Punch holes in the bottoms of the tomato cans. Fill 
each with sand, clay, humus, and garden loam respectively, placing 
equal amounts by volume in each. Place the cans over saucers so 
that the drainage water from each can be caught and measured. 
Using a liquid measure, pour a given amount of water into each can. 
When drainage ceases, measure the water that comes through and 
subtract this amount from the amount poured in. Record the 
result in terms of per cent, (b) Fill one tomato can v^^ith pure 
dry sand, fill another with equal amounts of dry sand and humus, 
mixed. Pour a given amount of water into each can, catch and 
measure the drainage water and record the results. Does the 
addition of humus increase or decrease the water-holding capacity 
of the soil? (c) Dip a dry pebble or rock into water and then hold 
in the air. Observe how a thin film of water resisting the pull of 
gravity completely envelopes the object. Every tiny soil particle in 
the soil is enveloped with a film of water in a like manner. 

Application: Film moisture is of the greatest agricultural importance, 
as it is from this that gi'owing plants obtain their whole supply 
of moisture and all the food that is taken from the soil by the 
roots. The feeding ground of the crop is measured by the sum of 
the surface areas of the soil particles that make up that portion of 
the soil occupied by the plants' roots. 



IN AGRICULTURE 57 

Soils vary greatly in the amount of water retained, the varia- 
tion being influenced by the size of the soil particles. This fact 
can be demonstrated both physically and mathematically. If we 
fill a chalk box with marbles, each time the diameter of the marbles 
is divided by two, the surface area of the spheres in the box is 
multiplied by two. While the soil particles are not perfect spheres 
the same mathematical principle holds true. King in "The Soil," 
page 72, states that the total surface area of the soil grains in 
a cubic foot of sandy soil is about one acre, while the area of the 
particles in a clay soil is nearly four acres. 

Exercise No. 62: 

Purpose: To study capillarity or how water moves in the soil. 

Material: Four lamp chimneys, cheese cloth, saucers, sand, silt, clay 
and garden soil. 

Procedure: Tie a piece of cheese cloth around the bottom of each 
lamp chimney. Fill the lamp chimney with sand, silt, clay and gar- 
den loam, respectively, and place in the saucers. Fill saucers with 
water until the bases of the chimneys are one inch below the sur- 
face. Note the upward movement of water in the columns of soil. 
In which soil does the water move most rapidly at first? In which 
soil is it the highest at the end of five hours? One day? 

Application: Water moves upward in the soil in response to the same 
natural law that causes oil to move upward in a wick. This is 
called capillarity. The capillary movement of water in the soil is 
of utmost importance in crop production for as fast as the film 
of water enveloping the soil particles in the upper layers of the 
soil are evaporated by the sun or wind, or withdrawn by the I'oots 
of plants, a new supply is drawn upward from the depths below to 
take its place. There is a limit to this upward pull, however, 
which varies with the character of the soil and the heights of the 
water table or ground water level. Capillarity is strongest and 
most rapid in a fine or firm soil. That is why the column of 
water is highest in the clay column and why a soil with a hard, 
compact surface dries out more quickly than a soil with a loose 
surface or mulch. 

APRIL: Fourth Week 

Topic: Soil Studies — Chemical Properties. (Text, pp. 18-26.) 

References: 7; 19; 21; 50; 51; 74; 87; 90; 121; 123; 138; 200; 240. 

Suggestions: These exercises should be set up outside of the regular 
agricultural recitation period. Most students will welcome the 
opportunity to do this additional work. The regular period can 
then be devoted to a class discussion of the principles involved in 
the exercise and their practical application. 

Lesson Topics: Each of the exercises given below may be made the 
subject of a lesson. 



58 COURSEOFSTUDY 

Exercise No. 63: 

Purpose: To learn how to determine the plant food requirements of 
a soil. 

Material: A strip of ground in the school garden; liberal samples 
of the various commercial fertilizers, such as lime, nitrate of soda, 
super-phosphate and potash. 

Procedure: Divide the plot of ground into 12 plats, each 4 by 4 
feet square or, if plenty of land is available, 4 by 8 feet in size, 
leaving a path or border 2 feet wide between the plats. Label 
these plats 1 to 12, respectively. Do not add fertilizer of any kind 
to plats Nos. 1, 6 and 12. These are to serve as checks on the 
others, (an experiment of any kind will be worthless without a 
check or control of some kind) . Apply nitrogen to Plat 2 in the 
form of nitrate of soda, at the rate of 2 pounds per square rod. 
Apply phosphorus to Plat 3 in the form of acid phosphate at the 
rate of 4 pounds per square rod. Apply potash to Plat 4 in the 
form of muriate of potash at the rate of 2 pounds per square rod. 
To Plat 5 apply 4 pounds of air-slaked lime. To Plat 7 apply both 
nitrogen and potash at the rates given above. To Plat 8 apply both 
phosphorus and potash at the rates given above. To Plat 9 apply 
nitrogen and phosphorus at the rates given above. To Plat 10 
apply nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium at the rates given above. 
To Plat 11 apply one wheelbarrow load of well-rotted barnyard 
manure. Spade each plat to a depth of 6 or 8 inches, thoroughly 
mixing the fertilizer with the soil in so doing. Several different 
garden and field plants should now be planted in rows running 
clear across the 12 plats. Plant oats, wheat or barley or alfalfa 
and clover in rows 4 inches apart. Radishes, lettuce and beets, 
etc., should be planted in rows 12 to 18 inches apart. Pota- 
toes and corn in rows 30 inches apart. Cultivate the plants in all 
of these plats the same day and in the same manner. If irriga- 
tion is necessary, each plat should receive the same amount of 
water. Note carefully the rate of growth, vigor and color of the 
plants in each of the plats. 

Exjolanation: This exercise will require considerable time and effort 
but will be well worth while because of the interest it arouses. 
Every farmer by this method can determine the fertilizer require- 
ments of his own soil better than any chemist can by laboratory 
analysis of his soil. 



IN AGRICULTURE 59 

Exercise No. 64: 

Purpose: To learn how to determine whether a soil is acid or alka- 
line. Also, to note the effects of soil acidity upon plant growth. 

Material: Some red and blue litmus paper, dilute sulphuric acid or 
vinegar. 

Procedure: (a) Place a drop of vinegar or acid upon a piece of blue 
litmus paper. Note the change in color, (b) Place a drop of a 
solution of sodium bi-carbonate on a piece of red litmus paper and 
note the change in color, (c) Place a strip of red litmus paper 
and another of blue litmus between moistened layers of earth 
obtained from the field or garden. Note any decided change in 
color of the litmus paper. Remember that acids turn the blue 
litmus red and alkalines turn red litmus blue, (d) If a soil is 
suspected of being acid, (if it is low and wet and contains much 
organic matter or will not grow clover or alfalfa) bury a strip of 
blue litmus paper to a depth of three or four inches in moist earth 
and leave for several hours. At the end of this time remove from 
the soil and see if there has been any decided change in color. 
(If acid soils are not available, the teacher may prepare some by 
mixing vinegar or a dilute solution of sulphuric or hydrochloric 
acid, with a pint of soil and then have the pupils test this.) (e) 
Take a sample of about a quart of the natural soil, or that pre- 
pared by the teacher, and mix with it a handful of air-slaked lime. 
Test with red and blue litmus paper both before and after the 
application of lime. (f) Fill two cans provided with drainage 
holes, with garden soil and plant alfalfa and wheat in each. 
Water both cans with pure water until the plants are three or four 
inches high. Continue to water one can with pure water but water 
the other with a very weak solution of vinegar, or sulphuric acid. 
Apply the same amount of liquid to each can at each irrigation. 
Note any change in the color of foliage and vigor of growth. 
Record such changes from day to day. At the end of six weeks 
examine the roots of the plants in each can and note the results. 

Application: Many otherwise good agricultural soils will not produce 
full crops because their acidity inhibits plant growth. The litmus 
test is an easy and fairly accurate method of determining such acid 
soils and costs but very little. The remedy for an acid soil is to 
treat with an application of lime. 



60 COURSE OF STUDY 

Exercise No. 65: 

Purpose: To demonstrate how some alkaline soils are found. Also, 
how alkali injures plants. 

Material: Three large tomato cans, two provided with drainage 
holes, one without; V2 pint of sodium carbonate (common baking 
soda) or sodium chloride (common salt). 

Procedure: (a) Thoroughly mix % pint of sodium carbonate or 
sodium chloride with the quart of oi'dinary garden soil. Place in 
one tomato can without any drainage holes and thoroughly soak. 
As the water evaporates look for a whitish deposit on the surface. 
(Note: In alkali regions you can easily obtain samples of the 
natural alkali for use in this experiment.) (b) Fill two cans pro- 
vided with drainage holes with good garden soil. Plant some 
wheat, or barley grains in each. After the plants are three or four 
inches high, place one can in a saucer containing a strong solution 
of sodium carbonate or salt so that the solution will be drawn up 
through the column of soil by capillary action. Take the other can 
and set it in a saucer containing only pure water. Test the soils 
in both cans from day to day with red litmus paper. Make note of 
any decided change in the color of the plants. 

Applicatio'ii : Nearly all soils in arid regions contain more or less of 
the soluble salts called alkali (in humid regions such salts have 
been leached out by the heavy rains.) In many arid soils the 
alkali salts do not appear on the surface until irrigation water is 
applied. If only a slight amount of water is applied the water per- 
colates to a depth of four or five feet and as it rises again 
through capillarity it carries to the surface and concentrates or 
deposits there by evaporation the alkali that has been contained in 
the depths of the soil. Still other soils, containing but little alkali, 
have been rendered unproductive because the use of irrigation 
water on higher adjacent lands have leached out the alkali they 
contained and the drainage or seepage water has carried it to 
the lower lands. Such gravitational water, heavily charged with 
the alkali salts, is di'awn to the surface by capillarity and by evap- 
oration has deposited the alkali it contains in solution on the 
surface. Hundreds of acres of otherwise good soils have been ren- 
dered unproductive in this manner. 



INAGRICULTURE 61 



MAY: First Week 

Topic: Soil Studies — Tillage; Drainage; Irrigation. 

References: 35; 41; 86; 98; 118-A; 120; 121; 160; 246; 248; 301; 
327; 339; 350; 354, 356; 359; 366; 375; 377; 381; 383; 384. 

Suggestions: The exercises outlined for this week, like those of the 
two preceding weeks, have practical bearing upon gardening 
and the field culture of crops. 

Lesson Topics: By having the exercise below performed out of class 
hours, the agricultural period can be utilized for discussing the 
practical application of the principle being demonstrated. 

Exercise No. 66: 

Purpose: To demonstrate the conservation of soil moisture by assist- 
ing or checking percolation. 

Materials: A strip of land of the school yard, a sprinkling pan and 
two empty coal oil cans, provided with drainage holes. 

Procedure: (a) Mark off a strip of ground (one having a gentle 
slope if possible), 4 feet wide and 16 feet long. Divide the strip 
into 3 plats each 4 feet square, leaving a path 2 feet wide between 
the plats. Label these plats A, B and C respectively. Leave 
the surface of Plat A hard and firm. Cultivate the surface of 
Plat B to Si depth of 3 inches and spade Plat C to a depth of 12 
inches. Using a sprinkling pan, or similar device, apply equal 
amounts of water (five gallons), to the surface of each plat, using 
the same amount of water on each plat. Dig into each plat five 
or six hours after the water has been applied and note the depth 
to which the water has penetrated. (b) Fill one coal oil can 
with dry sand, fill another with equal parts of dry sand and well- 
rotted, dry manure. Pour a measured amount of water into each 
can. Catch the drainage water from each and note the relative 
amount of water retained by each. 

Application: In semi-arid regions the farmers have to conserve 
every inch of rainfall. They do this by making it easy for the 
rainfall to percolate into the soil, and difficult for it to escape, 
once it gets into the soil. Exercise (a) demonstrates a funda- 
mental principle of dry farming. In light and sandy soils, percola- 
tion is rapid. Farmers cultivating such soils can increase the 
water-holding capacity by the addition of humus such as sti'aw, 
barnyard manure, etc. Exercise (b) illustrates this. 



62 COURSEOFSTUDY 

Exercise No. 67: 

Procedure: To demonstrate the conservation of soil moisture by 
checking capillarity. 

Material: Four lamp chimneys, cheese cloth for tying on bottoms of 
chimneys; four coal oil cans with tops removed. 

Procedure: (a) Fill the four lamp chimneys with soil taken from 
the field or garden, compacting the soil as much as possible in 
each; label these 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. Remove the upper 
three inches of soil in No. 1 and put in a layer of finely chopped 
straw to a depth of one-half inch, and then fill up with soil, 
cultivate the surface of No. 2 to a depth of three inches and keep 
in a very loose condition. Remove two inches of soil in No. 3, 
and replace with a layer of straw. Leave the surface of No. 4 com- 
pact. Place each chimney in a snug-fitting can of water. Place a 
collar of cardboard around each chimney and over the top of the 
vessel to prevent direct evaporation of water. Place equal amounts 
of water in each vessel. Note the relative rapidity with which the 
water is evaporated by each column of soil, (b) Fill three coal 
oil cans with ordinary dry soil. Wet each can of soil until drain- 
age begins. Weigh and record weight of each. Cultivate the 
surface of can No. 1 to a depth of three inches and keep in a fine 
loose condition. Cover the surface of can No. 2 with a three-inch 
mulch of straw. Leave the surface of the soil in can No. 3 hard 
and compact. Weigh the cans from day to day and note the rela- 
tive rapidity with which the moisture is evaporated. (c) Mark 
off a strip of land in the school yard or other convenient place, 
four feet wide and 16 feet long. Divide this strip into three plats 
each four feet square, separated by strips two feet wide. Label 
the plats A, B and C respectively. Leave the surface of Plat A 
hard and uncultivated but keep the weeds down by shaving off with 
a sharp hoe at the surface of the ground. Spade Plat B to a depth 
of eight inches and cultivate after each rain with a rake to a depth 
of three inches. Spade Plat C to a depth of eight inches and 
cover with a three-inch mulch of straw or grass. After a dry 
spell of a week or so, have the students dig a hole in each plat 
and note the comparative dryness of each soil. 

Application: The importance of the conservation of soil moisture in 
semi-arid regions, and even in Western Oregon, during a period 
of drouth, cannot be too strongly emphasized. More "horse-leg" 
irrigation is needed on every farm. 



INAGRICULTURE 63 



Exercise No. 68: 

Purpose: To study the properties of gravitational water or ground 
water. 

Material: A quart of clean gravel, five one-half pint fruit jars, a 
liquid measure. 

Procedure: Sort or sift the quart of gravel into large, medium and 
small sized particles. Fill the three jars with the large, medium 
and small sized particles respectively. Fill a fourth with sand, and 
a fifth with clay. Have equal amounts of gravel by volume in 
each jar. Using the liquid measure, pour just enough water into 
each jar to bring the water up to a level with the surface of the 
gravel particles in each. Note the amount of water contained in 
each soil. Which soil contains or holds the most water? (This 
can be demonstrated by using marbles, buck shot and BB shot, 
instead of gravel.) 

Application: The soil is said to be saturated with water when the 
air spaces between the soil particles are filled with water. Such 
soils are called wet, and must be drained before crops can be 
grown. The water that fills the soil spaces is called gravitational 
or ground water because it moves in response to the pull of gravity. 

Exercise No. 69: 

Purpose : To study the influence of drainage upon plant growth. 

Materials: Four large tomato cans or five-pound pails, three being 
provided with drainage holes. 

Procedure: (a) Fill two cans (one without drainage holes) with gar- 
den soil and plant 10 wheat or barley grains in each. Apply the 
same amount of water to each can twice a week (one-half cupful 
each time). Note any difference in the time of germination and 
the vigor of the seedlings, (b) Fill two cans provided with drain- 
age holes, with garden soil and plant 10 wheat grains in each. 
Water twice a week. When the seedlings are two to four inches 
high, seal the bottom of one can by dipping in melted wax or 
paraffin, leaving the outlets in the other open. Continue to 
water as before, giving each can the same amount of water at each 
application. Note any change that occurs in the color and vigor 
of the plants in each can. 

Application: Many otherwise good agricultural soils are producing 
poor crops because percolation is hindered by a hardpan, or imper- 
vious layer of clay, and artificial drainage becomes necessary. 



64 COUESEOFSTUDY 

MAY: Second Week 

Topic: Plant Study — Reproduction; Seed Formation. (Text, pp. 44-53.) 

Othe?- References: 123; 204. 

Suggestions: How are seeds formed? Why do some flowers produce 
fruit while others do not? What is the significance of the structure 
of some flowers? These are just a few of the many thought-stim- 
ulating questions a study of the flower will develop. 

Lesson Topics: (a) The parts of a flower: the use of each part, 
(b) The meaning of "self-pollination" and "cross-pollination"; 
"pistillate" and "staminite" blossoms; "monoecious" and "dioecious" 
flowers. Cite examples of each, (c) Relation of insects to polli- 
nation. Significance of the odor, color and nectar in flowers, 
(d) Hybridizing: methods. 

Exercise No. 70: 

Purpose: To study a few simple flowers so as to know the arrange- 
ment and structure of the different parts. 

Material: Flowers of apple, cherry, tomato, petunia or any ordinary 
complete flower may be used. 

Procedure: Study the flower which may be available and make a 
drawing of it. Locate the points where the flowers arise from the 
stem. Is there anything else growing from this same place? 
What? Are there any exceptions? Study a side view of the 
flower; then examine it as to parts. The lower, outer set of 
parts is the calyx, made up of green leaf-like components called 
sepals. Inside the calyx is the corolla, which is made up of petals. 
The calyx and corolla together are called the perianth. Inside the 
corolla are the stamens, each consisting of a slender stalk or fila- 
ment with a knob on the end, called the anther. Inside of the 
circle of staynens is the pistil. This consists of three parts: the 
top or stigma; below this a long, column-like neck, the style; below 
the style comes the swollen bulbous base, the ovary. Label all 
the parts in the drawing you have made, then split the flower 
lengthwise with a knife and study the parts within. Pull off one 
sejjal and make a sketch. Make sketch of a stameyi; a petal; the 
pistil, labeling all parts fully. 

Suggestions: Ask yourself the following questions: How many sets 
and parts are there in a flower, and in what order do they occur? 
Are the petals of the corolla joined together? How many petals 
are there? Name all the parts of a flower beginning at the base. 
Name and locate the parts of a stamen. Name and locate the 
parts of a pistil. 



IN AGRICULTURE 65 



Exercise No. 71: 

Purpose: To learn how to emasculate and cross-pollinate flowers. 

Material: Whatever plant is to be used (the flower of the apple, 
tomato, squash, corn, etc.), a fine pointed scissors, a few bags, 
string and cardboard labels. (Note: Always write labels with 
lead pencil when these are exposed to the weather; ink would blur 
upon becoming wet.) 

Procedure: Select as many flowers of one kind as are to be used. 
Carefully remove the stameyis by means of the sharp-pointed scis- 
sors, before any of the fine pollen which develops on them has 
commenced to be shed. Tie a paper sack over each flower so as to 
prevent any jwllen from getting in. Examine other blossoms to 
ascertain just about what time the pollen is being shed. The pistil 
will now be ready to receive the jyollen on its upper end, the stigma. 
Collect some pollen from other flowers of the same kind of plant. 
It may be collected by simply shaking it off into an envelope or 
other receptacle. In the cases of those flowers where the pollen is 
sticky it is well to remove it with a fine camel's hair brush. 
Place this pollen on the stigma of the flowers which you have pre- 
viously covered with paper sacks. Tie each flower up again to 
prevent the entrance of foreign pollen. The fruit develops from 
the pistil, particularly the ovary of the pistil. This part contains 
the seed, and none of the seeds will mature unless a certain number 
of pollen grains fall on the stigma, one for each seed. It is 
important, therefore, that pollination take place. 

Suggestions: Define "pollination"; "fertilization." Of what use is 
cross-pollination in the producing of new strains of plants? 

MAY: Third Week 

Topic: Insect Pests of House and Garden — (Text, pp. 118-147.) 

Other References: -31; 38; 137; 142; 166; 166-B; 158-A; 200- 204- 
210; 228; 390. 

Suggestions: Students should become familiar with the life history 
or various stages in the development of some of the common 
Insects. 

Lesson Topics: (a) The life history of the house-fly. (b) The life 
history of the mosquito, (c) The life history, habits and control 
of biting and chewing insects (cabbage worm, radish maggot, etc.) 
injurious to garden crops, (d) The life history, habits and control 
of sucking insects (scale insects, plant lice, etc.), injurious to 
garden crops. 



Sig. 3. 



66 COURSEOFSTUDY 

Exercise No. 72: 

Purpose: To study the development of the blow-fly. 

Materials: A piece of fresh meat; a can or bucket partly filled with 
moist earth. 

Procedure: Expose the meat in the open air for an hour or so (until 
the large blowflies have been observed hovering about it) . Observe 
the meat closely and see if the small white eggs of the fly can be 
detected. Place the meat in the pail of moist earth, screen and 
put in a warm place. Watch the meat daily for the little maggots, 
or larvae of the fly. Note how long it takes the eggs to hatch; 
the larvae to pupate; the pupa to develop into the adult fly. 

Exercise No 73 : 

Purpose : To study the development of the mosquito. 

Materials: A tub, barrel, can or bucket of water left in an exposed 
place. (There should be water enough so the contents will not 
quickly evaporate.) 

Procedure: The surface of the water should be closely watched for 
the dark-brown boat-shaped masses of mosquito eggs which look 
like bits of floating soot. These eggs will hatch in from one to 
seven days and the larvae or wrigglers will appear. Note the 
feeding and other habits of the larvae. After a week or 10 days, 
begin watching for the jnipa which differ from wriggler in that 
the head part is much enlarged. The pupae lie quietly near the 
surface when not disturbed. After spending four or five days 
in the pupal condition the skin breaks along the back of the pupa 
and the full-grown mosquito crawls out, dries its wings and flies 
away in search of some animal for its meal of blood. After the 
wrigglers become abundant in the large vessel, dip out some in a 
can or bucket. Pour a few drops of coal oil into the water. Note 
how the oil behaves. Also, see what happens to the wrigglers. 

MAY: Fourth Week 

Topic: Beneficial Insects — (Text, pp. 207-211.) 

Other References: 118; 138-A; 152; 200; 336; 386. 

Suggestions: Every school in the State should own a hive of bees. 
The hive should be made with one side of glass so that the habits 
of these interesting insects can be observed. 

Lesson Topics: (a) The life history of the honey bee. (b) The care 
and management of bees, (c) Study of som.e predaceous insects; 
habits; life history. (d) Significance of insect parasitism and 
its relation to the control of crop pests. 



IN AGRICULTURE 



67 



Exercise No. 74: 

Purpose: To study the honey bee: the worker. 

Material: A few dead workers which may be found around any hive. 
Observations: 1. How many divisions of the body are there'' 
2. What organs are borne on the head? 3. Are these small simple 
eyes between the large compound ones? 4. What is the difference 
between the large eyes and the small? 5. Describe the antennae. 
6. What can you see of the mouth? Describe it. 7. Look at the 
tongue under the lens and see how it is fitted for getting nectar 
from flowers. 8. What organs are borne on the thorax? 9 Study 
the front or middle leg. How many joints has it? 10 With the 
lens fmd the ante7i7iae cleaner on the front leg. Describe it 11 
Describe the feet and claws. 12. Compare the third segment of 
the hmd leg with that of the front leg. 13. Note that this segment 
of the hmd leg is much wider. Note its form and describe how it 
forms the pollen basket. 14. Study the second joint of the hind 
leg, and note the wax pincers and the pollen combs. 15. Compare 
the front and hind wing as to shape and size. 16. How manv 
rings are there on the abdomen and how are the rings colored 
above? 17. Study the lower side of the body; do you know where 
the wax comes from? (This and the two following exercises were 
taken from Cornell Home Nature Study Course, Vol. V., No. 3.) 

Exercise No. 75: 

Purpose: To study the honey bee; the queen and the drone. 
Material: A queen bee and some drones, either alive or dead, but 
preferably a live queen in a queen cage with her attendants; 
and some live drones. 

Observations: 1. How does the queen differ in size and shape from 
the worker? 2 Has she pollen baskets or pollen combs on her 
hind legs? 3. How does the shape of the abdomen differ from 
that of the worker? 4. How does the drone differ in size and form 
of body from the worker? 5. How does he differ in these respects 
from the queen? 6. Has he pollen baskets on his legs? 7 Has 
he a stmg? 8. Compare his eyes with those of the queen and the 
worker. 9. Compare the size of his wings with those of the queen 
and worker. 4"'=^ 



68 COURSEOFSTUDY 

Exercise No. 76: 

Purpose : To study the honey comb. 

Material: A section filled with honey and also a bit of empty comb 
and a bit of commercial foundation comb which may be obtained 
in any apiary. 

Observations: 1. Look at a bit of empty honey comb; what is the 
shape of the cell as you look down into it? 2. What is the shape 
of the bottom of the cell? 3. How does the bottom of the cell join 
the bottom of the cell opposite? Explain how honey comb econo- 
mizes space as storage for the honey, and why an economy of 
space is of use to the bees in the wild state. 4. In the hive, is the 
honey comb placed so that the length of the cells are horizontal or 
up and down? 5. Observe honey comb containing honey; how is 
the honey retained in the cells? 6. Carefully take off a cap from 
the honey cell and see if you can find the six girders that extend 
inward from the angles of the cell to support the circular portion 
in the center. 7. By what means is the honey comb made fast to 
the sides of the section or the hive? 8. Study a bit of foundation 
comb and note where the bees will pull but the wax to form the 
cell. 9. Why and how is foundation comb used by the bee keeper? 
10. For what purpose besides storing honey are the cells of 
honey comb used by the bees? 

JUNE: First Week 

Topic: Beneficial Animals — Birds, Bats, Toads, etc. (Text, pp. 234-240.) 

Other References: 32; 54; 141; 148; 150-A; 154; 157; 179; 182; 200; 
305; 306; 314; 319; 322; 329; 333; 345; 368; 376; 388; 396. 

Suggestions: Many of the animals looked upon as pests are really 
friends in disguise, and once their economic importance is under- 
stood, men take measures to protect them. The discussion this 
week should center around those types which are common in the 
community, special emphasis being placed upon their habits. The 
pupils should get as much of their information as possible by 
actual observation of the animal. The references given will prove 
helpful. 

Lesson Topics: (a) The resident and migratory birds common in the 
locality; their feeding and nesting habits, (b) The insectivorous 
and seed-eating birds common in the locality, (c) The economic 
importance of birds. (d) The food, habits, and importance of 
frogs and toads, (e) The food, habits, and importance of snakes, 
bats, etc. 



INAGRICULTURE 69 



JUNE: Second Week 
Topic: The Agricultural Resources of Oregon. 

References: 143-B; 200; 202; 204; 246; 248; 318; 330. 

Lesson Topics: (a) The types of farming practiced in the community 
and county. Average yields and profits, (b) The great natural 
divisions of the State and the types of farming practiced in each, 
(c) The fruit (grain, hay, livestock, etc.) sections of the State; 
varieties grown; amount produced; value of product, (d) When 
and hoviT the various farm products are marketed. Opportunities 
along agricultural lines that await skilled hands and trained 
minds. 

Exercise No. 77: 

Purpose: To make an intensive study of agriculture in Oregon. 

Suggestions: The school should be provided with one or more copies 
of reference No. 202. The advertising bulletins published by the 
commercial clubs throughout the State and especially those per- 
taining to the county should be available. 

Procedure: Each student should make an outline map of Oregon and 
indicate thereon the great natural agricultural divisions of the 
State. The products of the various divisions should be listed 
within the outline of each, and if the map is made large enough, 
the principal fruits, field crops, livestock and forest trees can be 
written within the outline of each county. This map of Oregon 
should form a basis for the discussion of the various lesson topics. 



70 COURSEOFSTUDY 

REFERENCE BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Nearly all of the books and bulletins mentioned in the following list can be 
obtained free. They should be procured as fast as needed and properly filed in 
the school library. 

FARMERS' BULLETINS 

United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 
Division of Publications 

(Note: When asking for bulletins, always give the Bulletin number and 
title; never mention the key number.) Farmers' Bulletins not obtainable through 
the Division of Publications can usually be secured from the Superintendent of 
Documents, Washington, D. C, for 5 cents a copy. 

Key No. Bull. No. 

The Feeding of Farm Animals. 

Potato Culture. 

Commercial Fertilizers. 

Sheep Feeding. 

Standard Varieties of Chickens. 

Some Common Birds. 

The Dairy Herd. 

Asparagus Culture. 

Marketing Farm Produce. 

Ducks and Geese. 

The Liming of Soils. 

Alkali Lands. 

Potato Diseases and Treatment. 

Raising Sheep for Mutton. 

Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. 

Breeds of Dairy Cattle. 

The Apple and How to Grow It. 

Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. 

Important Insecticides. 

Eggs and Their Uses as Food. 

Household Tests for Detection of Oleomargarine and 

Renovated Butter. 
Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat. 
Birds as Wheat Destroyers. 
Tree Planting in Rural School Grounds. 
The Angora Goat. 
Irrigation in Field and Garden. 

Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food. 
The Home Fruit Garden; Preparation and Care. 
How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts. 
The Home Vineyard. 
The Propagation of Plants. 
How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. 
Cheesemaking on the Farm. 
Principles of Horse Feeding. 
Primer of Forestry. 
Home Manufacture of Grape Juice. 
Squab Raising. 
Pruning! 



1 


22 


5 


35 


7 


44 


8 


49 


9 


51 


10 


54 


11 


55 


13 


61 


14 


62 


16 


64 


19 


77 


21 


88 


22 


91 


22-A 


96 


23 


99 


24 


106 


25 


113 


27 


126 


28 


127 


29 


128 


30 


131 


31 


132 


32 


133 


33 


134 


34 


137 


35 


138 


36 


142 


37 


154 


38 


155 


39 


156 


40 


157 


41 


158 


42 


166 


43 


170 


44 


173 


44-A 


175 


45 


177 


46 


181 



Key No. 


Bull. No. 


47 


182 


48 


183 


49 


185 


51 


192 


52 


194 


53 


195 


54 


196 


55 


198 


57 


200 


58 


203 


59 


205 


61 


210 


62 


213 


64 


218 


65 


220 


66 


224 


67 


228 


68 


229 


69 


236 


70 


237 


71 


241 


72 


242 


73 


243 


74 


245 


75 


248 


76 


250 


77 


252 


78 


253 


79 


254 


80 


255 


81 


256 


82 


257 


83 


260 


84 


262 


85 


263 


86 


266 


87 


270 


88 


271 


89 


272 


90 


278 


91 


280 


92 


282 


93 


287 


94 


289 


95 


291 


96 


292 


97 


293 


98 


294 


99 


295 



IN AGRICULTURE 71 



Poultry as Food. 

Meat on the Farm : Butchering, Curing and Keeping. 

Beautifying the Home Grounds. 

Barnyard Manure. 

Alfalfa Seed. 

Annual Flowering Plants. 

Usefulness of the American Toad. 

Strawberries. 

Turkeys. 

Canned Fruits. Preserves and Jellies. 

Pig Management. 

Wheat Culture. 

Raspberries. 

The School Garden. 

Tomatoes. Epidemic of 1904. 

Canadian Field Peas. 

Forest Planting and Farm Management. 

The Production of Good Seed Corn. 

Incubation and Incubators. 

Running Out of Seed Wheat. 

Butter-Making on the Farm. 

An Example of Model Farming. 

Fungicides and Their Use in Preventing Diseases of 

Fruits. 
Renovation of Worn-out Soils. 
The Lawn. 

Prevention of Wheat Smut and Loose Smut of Oats. 
An Example of Model Farming. 
The Germination of Seed Corn. 
Cucumbers. 

The Home Vegetable Garden. 
Preparation of Vegetables for the Table. 
Soil Fertility. 

Seed of Red Clover and Its Impurities. 
Glutinous and Starchy Wheats. 
Practical Information for Beginners in Irrigation. 
Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture. 
Modern Conveniences for the Farm Home. 
Forage Crop Practices in Western Oregon and Western 

Washington. 
A Successful Hog and Seed-Corn Farm. 
Leguminous Crop for Green Manuring. 
A Profitable Tenant Dairy Farm. 
Celery. 

Poultry Management. 
Beans. 

Evaporation of Apples. 
Cost of Filling Silos. 
Use of Fruit as Food. 

Farm Practice in the Columbia Basin Uplands. 
Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food. 



72 COURSEOFSTUDY 



Key No. Bull. No. 

100 298 The Food Value of Corn and Corn Products. 

101 303 Corn Harvesting Machinery. 

102 306 Dodder in Relation to Farm Seeds. 

103 313 Harvesting and Storing Corn. 

104 315 Progress in Legume Innoculation. 

105 320 Quality in Wheat. 

106 321 The Use of the Split-Log Drag on Earth Roads. 
106-A 324 Sweet Potatoes. 

107 327 The Conservation of Natural Resources. 

109 339 Alfalfa. 

110 342 Potato Breeding. 

110-A 345 Some Common Disinfectants. 

110-B 347 Repair of Farm Equipment. 

111 346 Computation of Rations for Farm Animals. 
111-A 347 Repair of Farm Equipment. 

112 353 Commercial Clover Seed. 

113 354 Onion Culture. 

114' 355 A Successful Poultry and Dairy Farm. 

114-A 358 Primer of Forestry, part 2. 

114-B 359 Canning Vegetables in the Home.- 

114-C 363 Use of Milk as Food. 

114-D 365 Farm Management in Potato Sections. 

115 368 The Eradication of Bind Weed or Wild Morning Glory. 

116 370 Replanning a Farm for Profit. 
116-A 371 Drainage of Irrigated Lands. 
116-B 373 Irrigation of Alfalfa. 

116-C 375 Care of Food in Home. 

116-D 379 Hog Cholera. 

116-E 382 Adulteration of Forage Plant Seeds. 

116-F 385 Boys' and Girls' Agricultural Clubs. 

117 386 Potato Culture on Irrigated Farms. 
117-A 387 Preservative Treatment of Farm Timbers. 
117-B 395 Sixty-day and Kherson Oats. 

118 397 Bees. 

118-A 399 Irrigation of Grain. 

118-B 400 Most Profitable Corn Planting Method. 

119 401 Frost Fighting in the Pacific Northwest. 
119-A 403 Construction of Concrete Fence Posts. 

120 404 Irrigation of Orchards. 

121 406 Soil Conservation. 

122 407 Potatoes as a Truck Crop. 

123 408 School Exercises in Plant Production. 

124 409 School Exercises in Corn. 

125 413 Care of Milk in the Home. 

126 415 Seed Corn. 

127 420 Oats: Distribution and Use. 
127-A 421 Control of Blowing Soils. 

128 423 Forest Nurseries for Schools. 

129 424 Oats: Growing the Crop. 

130 426 Canning Peaches on the Farm. 

131 428 Testing Seeds in the Home and at School. 



Key No. 


Bull. No. 


132 


432 


133 


433 


134 


434 


134-A 


437 


135 


438 


136 


443 


137 


444 


137-A 


445 


138 


446 


138-A 


447 


139 


451 


139-A 


452 


140 


455 


140-A 


454 


141 


456 


142 


459 


143 


460 


143-A 


461 


143-B 


462 


143-C 


463 


144 


468 


145 


471 


145-A 


473 


145-B 


474 


145-C 


475 


145-D 


478 


145-E 


480 


145-F 


181 


146 


482 


146-A 


485 


146-B 


488 


146-C 


490 


146-D 


491 


147 


492 


148 


493 


148-A 


494 


149 


495 


150 


496 


150-A 


497 


151 


502 


152 


503 


153 


505 


154 


506 


155 


507 


156 


511 


157 


513 


158 


515 


158- A 


518 


159 


521 


160 


524 



INAGRICULTURE 73 

How a City Family Managed a Farm. 

Cabbage. 

Home Production of Onion Sets. 

System of Tenant Farming and Its Results. 

Hog Houses. 

Barley: Growing the Crop. 

Remedies and Preventives Against Mosquitos. 

Marketing Eggs Through Creameries. 

Choice of Crops for Alkali Lands. 

Bees. 

Clover Growing. 

Capons. 

Red Clover. 

Successful New York Farm. 

The Grosbeaks: Their Value to Agriculture. 

House Flies. 

Frames as a Factor in Truck Farming. 

Use of Concrete on the Farm. 

Utilization of Logged-off Land. 

Sanitary Privy. 

Forestry in Nature Study. 

Grape Propagation, Pruning and Training. 

Tuberculosis. 

Use of Paint on Farm. 

Ice Houses. 

How to Prevent Typhoid Fever. 

Practical Methods of Disinfecting Stables. 

Concrete Construction on Livestock Farm. 

The Pear and How to Grow It. 

Sweet Clover. 

Diseases of Cabbage. 

Bacteria in Milk. 

Profitable Management of Small Apple Orchard. 

Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Apple. 

English Sparrows as Pests. 

Lawn Soils and Lawns. 

Alfalfa: Seed Production. 

Raising Belgium Hares. 

Some Common Game in Relation to Man. 

Timothy Production on Irrigated Lands of Pacific 

Northwest. 
Comb Honey. 
Benefits of Public Roads. 
Foods of Some Well Known Birds. 
Smuts of Grain. 
Farm Bookkeeping. 

Fifty Common Birds of Farm and Orchard. 
Vetches. 
Winter Barley. 

Canning Tomatoes at Home and as Club Work. 
The Drainage of the Farm. 



74 COURSEOFSTUDY 

Raising Guinea Pigs. 

Hints to Poultry Raisers. 

Important Poultry Diseases. 

Larkspur, or Poison Weed. 

Good Seed Potatoes: How to Produce Them. 

Durum Wheat. 

How to Grow an Acre of Corn. 

The Stable Fly. 

Farm Butter Making. 

Common White Grubs. 

Potato Tuber Diseases. 

Control of Canada Thistles. 

Yellow Fever Mosquito. 

Pop Corn for the Home. 

Pop Corn for the Market. 

Making and Feeding of Silage. 

The Potato Tuber Moth. 

Bean Growing in Eastern Oregon and Washington. 

Boys' and Girls' Poultry Club. 

Boys' Pig Club. 

System of Farm Cost Accounting. 

The Angora Goat. 

Poultry House Construction. 

Breeds of Sheep for the Farm. 

Making and Feeding Silage. 

The Common Mole. 

Natural and Artificial Incubation. 

Collection and Preservation of Plant Materials, for 

Study of Agriculture. 
Economic Value of the Skunk. 
Shipping Eggs by Parcel Post. 
Pasture and Grain Crops for Hogs in the Pacific 

Northwest. 
The Road Drag. 
Collection and Preservation of Insects, etc. 

The following Farmers' Bulletins which are given the general title, 
"Experiment Station Work," should be secured, as they contain many 
short but very interesting articles on nearly every phase of agriculture: 

The listing of these articles in their proper place in the Bibliography 
will provide fascinating work for many students who might otherwise 
find time hanging heavy on their hands. Order by the following bulletin 
numbers: 56; 65; 69; 73; 78; 79; 84; 87; 92; 97; 103; 114; 119; 122 
133; 144; 149; 162; 169; 193; 202; 210; 222; 225; 227; 233; 237; 244 
251; 259; 262; 267; 273; 276; 281; 296; 305; 309; 316; 317; 320; 329 
334; 342; 453; 360; 366; 374; 381; 384; 388; 405; 412; 419; 425; 430 
435; 451; 457; 465; 469; 479; 486; 499; 504; 514; 517; 522; 527; 532;549. 



Key No. 


Bull. No 


161 


525 


162 


528 


163 


530 


163-A 


531 


164 


533 


164-A 


534 


165 


537 


166 


540 


166-A 


541 


166-B 


543 


167 


544 


168 


545 


168-A 


547 


169 


553 


170 


554 


170-A 


556 


171 


557 


172 


561 


173 


562 


174 


556 


174-A 


572 


175 


573 


176 


574 


177 


576 


178 


578 


179 


583 


180 


585 


181 


586 


182 


587 


183 


594 


184 


599 


185 


597 


186 


606 



IN AGRICULTURE 75 

BULLETINS 

United State Department of Agriculture 

(These are not "Farmers' Bulletins") 

Management of Sheep on a Farm. 

The Commercial Fattening of Poultry. 

Bulb Growing. 

Economics of Orcharding. 

Lessons from German Potato Growers. 

Cost of Raising a Dairy Cow. 

Water Supply, Plumbing and Sewage Disposal for. 

Special References 

Farm Papers: One or two of the best in the State and 
the Breeders' Gazette, Hoard's Dairyman, Orange Judd 
Farmer, or other good papers published elsewhere 
should come to each school. 

202 .... "The Oregon Farmer" and "The Oregon Almanac." 

These may be obtained from C. C. Chapman, Secretary 
Oregon State Immigration Commission. 

204 .... Yearbooks. United States Department of Agriculture. 

(The yearbooks may be obtained free by writing to 
either United States Senator from Oregon, or to the 
Congressman from your district. 



Cey No. 


Bull. No. 


186 


20 


187 


21 


188 


28 


189 


29 


190 


47 


191 


49 


192 


57 


Cey No. 


Bull. No. 


200 





76 COURSEOFSTUDY 

OREGON AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXTENSION 
PUBLICATIONS 



Key No. Bull. No. 



210 


91 


211 


200 


212 


101 


213 


102 


214 


105 


215 


106 


216 


107 


218 


108 


219 


109 


220 


115 


221 


116 


222 


117 


223 


118 


224 


119 


225 


121 


226 


123 


227 


124 


228 


126 


229 


127 


230 


128 


231 


156 


232 


157 


233 


158 


234 


159 


235 


160 


236 


162 



Insect Pests of Truck and Garden Crops. 

Septic Tanks and Absorption Systems. 

Feeding the Dairy Cow. 

Raising the Dairy Calf. 

Improving the Dairy Herd. 

Farm Butter Making. 

The Care of Milk and Cream. 

Feeding Young Chickens. 

Making the Babcock Test. 

Planning and Planting the Garden. 

Selecting and Caring for the Flock. 

Feeding and Care of Dairy Cows. 

Handling the Fruit Crop. 

Feeding for Pork and for Show. 

Growing an Oregon Potato Crop. 

How and When to Spray the Orchard. 

Corn in Oregon. 

How to Conduct a Fly Campaign. 

Breeds of Chickens. 

Fruit and Vegetable By-Products. 

Judging Dairy Cows. 

Feeding for Eggs. 

Incubation and Brooding. 

Housing of Chickens. 

Oregon Station Trap Nest. 

Judging Swine. 



Key No. 
240 


Bull. No. 
112 


242 






244 


Cir 


. 18 


246 


Cir 


. 8 


248 




117 


249 




120 


250 







INAGRICULTURE 77 

OREGON EXPERIMENT STATION PUBLICATIONS 

Soils of Oregon. 

Biennial Crop Pest and Horticultural Report. 

Swine Husbandry. 

Farming in Eastern Oregon. 

Experimental and Demonstration Work in Eastern 
Oregon. 

Improving Sandy Soils by Use of Green Manure Crops. 

Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects, Depart- 
ment of Entomology, O. A. C. 

Note: The following list of publications is made up exclusively of 
United States Department of Agriculture Year Book Separates. Order 
by Separate Nwinber: 

Title 
Grain Smuts, Their Causes and Prevention. 
Condition in Soils of Arid Regions. 
Small Fruit Culture for Market. 
Cause and Prevention of Pear Blight. 
Utilization of By-Products of Dairy. 
Birds as Weed Destroyers. 
How Birds Affect the Orchard. 
Commercial Pear Culture. 
Rural School Problems. 
Dairying at Home and Abroad. 
Top Working Orchard Trees. 

Practicability of Forest Planting in United States. 
Improvement of Corn by Seed Selection. 
Cultivation and Fertilization of Peach Orchards. 
Economic Value of Bobwhite. 
Model Farm. 
Wheat Flour and Bread. 
Macaroni Wheat. 

Relation of Forests to Stream Flow. 
Opportunities in Agriculture. 

Relation of Birds to Fruit Growing in California. 
Potato Culture. 
Annual Loss Occasioned by Destructive Insects in the 

United States. 
Boys' Agricultural Clubs. 

Benefits Farmers Derive from Game Protection. 
Principal Insect Enemies of Peach. 
Handling of Fruit for Transportation. 
Meadow Mice in Relation to Agriculture. 
Relation of Irrigation to Dry Farming. 
Farm Practice in Control of Field-Crop Insects, 
Birds that Eat Scale Insects. 
Opportunities for Dairying. 
Plant Diseases in 1906. 
Principal Injurious Insects of 1906. 



Key 
No. 
300 


Separate 
No. 
19 


301 


29 


302 


47 


303 


50 


304 


94 


305 


133 


306 


197 


307 


215 


308 


233 


309 


260 


310 


266 


311 


270 


312 


287 


313 


293 


314 


309 


315 


323 


316 


324 


317 


326 


317-A 


329 


318 


340 


319 


344 


320 


349 


321 


360 


321-A 


362 


322 


364 


323 


386 


324 


387 


325 


388 


327 


393 


328 


396 


329 


416 


330 


432 


331 


437 


332 


438 



78 COURSEOFSTUDY 



Does It Pay the Farmer to Protect Birds? 

Bacteria in Milk. 

Art of Seed Selection and Breeding. 

Value of Insect Parasitism to American Farmer! 

Rabbit as Farm and Orchard Pest. 

Cropping Systems for Stock Farms. 

Use of Small Water Supplies for Irrigation. 

Truck Farming in Atlantic States. 

Codling Moth for Apple Worm. 

Diseases of Ornamental Trees. 

Plant Diseases in 1907. 

Principal Injurious Insects of 1907. 

Economic Value of Predaceous Birds and Mammals. 

Wastes of the Farm. 

Information About Spraying for Orchard Pests. 

Mouse Plagues, Their Control and Prevention. 

Development of Farm Crops Resistant to Disease. 

Soil Mulches for Checking Evaporation. 

Principal Injurious Insects of 1908. 

Methods and Cost of Marketing. 

Plants Useful to Attract Birds and Protect Fruit. 

Problems of Irrigation Farmer. 

Pocket Gophers as Enemies of Trees. 

Functions and Value of Soil Bacteria. 

Farming as Occupation for City-Bred Men. 

Future Wheat Supply of United States. 

Methods of Applying Water to Crops. 

Progress in Methods of Producing Higher Yielding 

Strains of Corn. 
Opportunities in Forest Planting for the Farmer. 
Comforts and Conveniences in Farmers' Homes. 
Prevention of Frost Injury to Fruit Crops. 
Handling of Deciduous Fruits on Pacific Coast. 
How Farmers May Utilize Special Warnings of 

Weather Bureau. 
Agricultural Duty of Water. 
Nitrogen-Gathering Plants. 

Migratory Movements of Birds in Relation to Weather. 
Cooperation in Handling and Marketing Fruit. 
Pre-cooling of Fruit. 

Effect of Present Method of Handling Eggs. 
Reduction of Waste in Marketing. 
Prevention and Treatment of Disease in Poultry. 
Relation Between Rotation Systems and Insect Injury. 
Important American Soils. 
Bird Enemies of Codling Moth. 
Some Misconceptions Concerning Dry Farming. 
Tree Planting by Farmers. 
Seasonal Distribution of Labor on Farm. 
Some Results of Farmers' Cooperative Demonstration 

Work. 



Key 

No. 

333 


Separate 
No. 
443 


334 


444 


335 


446 


336 


447 


337 


452 


338 


456 


339 


458 


340 


459 


341 


460 


342 


463 


343 


467 


344 


472 


345 


474 


346 


475 


347 


480 


348 


482 


349 


494 


350 


495 


351 


499 


852 


502 


853 


504 


854 


505 


355 


506 


356 


507 


357 


509 


358 


511 


359 


514 


360 


515 


861 


517 


362 


518 


868 


519 


864 


520 


865 


522 


866 


526 


867 


530 


868 


545 


369 


546 


370 


550 


871 


552 


372 


558 


373 


559 


374 


561 


375 


563 


376 


564 


377 


565 


378 


566 


379 


567 


880 


568 



Key No. 
No. 


Separate 
No. 


381 


570 


382 


572 


383 


574 


384 


576 


385 


577 


386 


583 


387 


584 


388 


590 


389 


591 


390 


594 


391 


595 


392 


596 


393 


597 


394 


599 


395 


600 


396 


601 


397 


606 



INAGRICULTURE 79 



Irrigation in Humid Regions. 
Rotation in Corn Belt. 
Water Economy of Dry-Land Crops. 
Present Outlook for Irrigation Farming. 
Commercial Methods of Canning Meats. 
Value of Predaceous Beetles. 
Handling and Marketing of Eggs. 
Our Meadow Larks in Relation to Agriculture. 
Handling of Dressed Poulti'y. 
Insects Injurious to Onion Crop. 
Condensed and Dessicated Milk. 
How to Improve Quality of Poultry and Eggs. 
Successful Method of Marketing Vegetable Products. 
Some Useful Weather Proverbs. 
Some Important Insect Enemies of Livestock. 
Relation of Birds to Grain Aphides. 
Dairying and Its Relation to Agriculture in Semi-Arid 
Sections. 

SUPPLEMENT TO BIBLIOGRAPHY 

One or more of the following farm papers published in this State, and 
one or more of national circulation should come regularly to every school. 
School boards cannot spend $2.00 or $3.00 to better advantage than to 
have some good farm papers placed on the school reading-table. 

Whenever the school cannot afford to subscribe for farm papers, the 
pupils should be encouraged to bring them from their homes. 

The farm papers published in Oregon are as follows: 

Pacific Northwest Portland, Oregon 

Pacific Rural Spirit Portland, Oregon 

The Oregon Agriculturist Portland, Oregon 

The Fai'm Magazine Portland, Oregon 

The Western Stock Journal Oregon City, Oregon 

Pacific Homestead Salem, Oregon 

The Oregon Farmer Salem, Oregon 

Northwest Poultry Journal Salem, Oregon 

The Farm, Orchard and Garden... Central Point, Oregon 

Eastern Oregon Agriculturist La Grande, Oregon 

Northwest Pacific Farmer Portland, Oregon 

Better Fruit Hood River, Oregon 

Some of the best farm papers of national circulation that deal more 
or less with Oregon conditions are as follows : 

The Breeder's Gazette, Chicago, Illinois 

Hoard's Dairyman ■. Fort Atkinson, Wis. 

Northwest Farmstead Minneapolis, Minn. 

The Fruit Grower and Farmer St. Joseph, Mo. 

The Country Gentleman Philadelphia, Pa. 



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